<p>Olana State Historic Site is a historic house museum and landscape in Greenport, New York, near the city of Hudson. The estate was home to Frederic Edwin Church , one of the major figures in the Hudson River School of landscape painting. The centerpiece of Olana is an eclectic villa which overlooks parkland and a working farm designed by the artist. The residence has a wide view of the Hudson River Valley, the Catskill Mountains and the Taconic Range. Church and his wife Isabel  named their estate after a fortress-treasure house in ancient Greater Persia , which also overlooked a river valley.</p><br>
<p>Olana is one of the few intact artists home-, studio- and estate-complexes in the United States; it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965. The house is also a prime example of Orientalist architecture. The main building is an architectural masterpiece designed by Frederic Church in consultation with the architect Calvert Vaux. The interior remains much as it was during Churchs lifetime, exotically furnished and decorated with objects from his global travels, and with some 40 paintings by Church and his friends. The house is intricately stenciled inside and out; Church designed the stencils based on his travels in the Middle East. The house contains Church&#39;s last studio, built as an addition from 1888 to 1890.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1845, Frederic Church first sketched on the property that was to become Olana. He was then a student of Thomas Cole, now considered a founding figure of the Hudson River School of painters. On March 31, 1860, a few months before his marriage to Isabel Carnes, Church returned to purchase a 126 acre hardscrabble farm on a south-facing slope of a hill in Columbia County, near the thriving towns of Hudson and Catskill, New York. The first element he added to the property was a small country cottage, believed to have been designed by Richard Morris Hunt. In addition, Church laid out gardens and orchards, dredged a marsh to create a 10 acre lake, planted trees, and built a studio. Frederic and Isabel Church called their house "Cosy Cottage" and their property "the Farm".</p><br>
<p>Two children were born to the Churches, a son in 1862 and a daughter in 1865. The family&#39;s bucolic life at Olana was forever changed in March 1865, with the deaths of the children from diphtheria. Grieving from this, the greatest emotional blow of their lives, the parents traveled with sympathetic friends to Jamaica for four months, then to a retreat in Vermont. Late in 1865, the couple returned to Cosy Cottage to start anew. Frederic Joseph Church was born in autumn 1866, the first of three sons and a daughter that were raised to adulthood at Olana.</p><br>
<p>In 1867 Church acquired a parcel of mature woods at the top of his hill, and began planning a large house for the site. After an 18-month trip to Europe and the Middle East, Church hired architect Calvert Vaux and worked with him on the design of the mansion, which was constructed between 1870 and 1872.</p><br>
<p>Church continuously improved the property, plotting scenic carriage roads and adding a studio wing to the house over the period 1888–1891. Although the Churches often wintered in warmer climates, and spent time in New York City, Olana was their main residence. After Isabel Churchs death in 1899 and Frederic Churchs death in 1900, the property was inherited by their son Louis Church, who married Sarah Baker Good (known as Sally) in 1901. Louis and Sally Church maintained the property largely as it had been left to them, adding additional acreage for farming. Upon Sally Church&#39;s death in 1964, a nephew inherited the estate and intended to sell it to developers at a public auction. After a two-year anti-development campaign led by scholar David C. Huntington (1922–1990), which culminated in a cover story on Olana in Life magazine, New York State purchased the property in 1966 and it was opened to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Landscape</h2><br>
<p>Over the last forty years of his life, Frederic Church created a 250 acre designed landscape at Olana. In an 1884 letter, Church wrote of his work on the grounds at Olana, "I can make more and better landscapes in this way than by tampering with canvas and paint in the studio." Today Olana is known as one of the most important surviving Picturesque landscapes in the United States. Produced during the same period with the same aesthetic and ideological motivations, the landscape at Olana has been compared to Central Park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux.</p><br>
<p>Church began the physical landscape design at Olana by searching three years for the ideal property. He had walked and sketched throughout much of New England and elsewhere by that time, but his formative two years studying with Thomas Cole in nearby Catskill, New York, brought him back to the Hudson Valley. The Church estate covers a series of small knolls rising up to the Sienghenbergh – Dutch for "Long Hill" – where the main house is sited. From various points around the property, one has views of the Hudson River, the Catskill, Taconic and Berkshire Mountain ranges, as well as New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont.</p><br>
<p>In 1860, Frederic Church made his initial acquisition of a 126-acre (50.99 ha) farm, which he developed into a ferme ornée, an ornamental farm. Around Cosy Cottage, a profitable 15.5 acre orchard and 4.3 acre of vegetable and fruit gardens were created in addition to pastures and crop land, each with a distinct visual character. The family always called their place "the farm," but when he bought the land, Church took about half out of active agricultural production to create a landscaped park. In this park, Church planted thousands of native trees (many transplanted from elsewhere on site); created a 10 acre lake from a swamp; built a freestanding studio, summer house, and rustic benches and railings; and designed 5 mi of carriage drives paved in crushed red shale mined on site. Church strategically acquired additional adjacent parcels until his property encompassed 250.2 acre and the top of the hill where the main house at Olana now stands.</p><br>
<p>To conceal, reveal and frame vistas of his own property and the wider Hudson Valley, Church combined natural landforms with the careful layout of carriage drives and extensive plantings of trees and shrubs. Frederick Law Olmsted thought of such landscapes as "pictures" through which people might wander. In addition to entertaining often, the Churches opened the Olana grounds to the public. From the popular carriage drives, visitors experienced the artists landscape vignettes almost as cinema, in a sequence choreographed by Church. The ultimate aspect of Churchs designed landscape is the view from the main house. There, the ground drops away sharply, the Hudson widens to 2 mi across, and the Catskills rise up steeply. Like Churchs painted views of Niagara Falls, Canadian icebergs, and South American volcanoes this scene captures the majesty of nature. For the artist and his contemporaries, this vista also captured the essence of their new nation with references to pioneering history, present economic strength, and the distinguished literary and artistic legacies of the regions Knickerbocker Group and Hudson River School.</p><br>
<h2>Main residence</h2><br>
<p>The stone, brick, and polychrome-stenciled villa at Olana is an unusual mixture of Victorian structural elements and Middle-Eastern decorative motifs from different times and places. Moorish elements mix with contrasting Italianate themes. The result was a villa with asymmetrical massing of towers and block masonry punctuated by fanciful windows and porches. The irregular silhouette of the exterior contrasted with the more regular rhythm of rooms arranged around a central hall. On the exterior, Middle Eastern motifs were carried out in colored brick, slate, ceramic tile and especially stenciling. The cornices of the separate sections of the structure were each ornamented with multi-colored and gilt stenciling, the patterns designed by Church himself. The stenciling continued in the principle rooms of the first floor. Together, the various motifs and themes create a unique artistic unity, one that is difficult to categorize.</p><br>
<p>Church designed or commissioned many other devices, such as amber glass windows overlaid by cut-paper patterns and carved teak woodwork by Lockwood de Forest&#39;s workshops in Ahmadabad, India. With no architectural adviser, Church designed and built the studio wing at the west end of the house, which included guest rooms and a glassed-in observation room in the tower. Describing his house to a newspaper reporter, Church characterized it as "Persian, adapted to the Occident".</p><br>
<p>The furnishings Frederic and Isabel acquired over the course of their lives remain in the house. There are paintings by Frederic Church as well as artwork by his mentor Thomas Cole and friends Martin Johnson Heade and Erastus Dow Palmer. The dining room houses a collection of Old Master paintings. The eclectic assortment of furniture and decorative arts includes carpets, metalwork, ceramics and costumes from the Middle East, folk art and fine art from Mexico, and high-style American and Oriental furniture. The main residence at Olana has been described as a prime example of the Aesthetic Movement in America.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior views</h3><br>
<p>Olana - IMG 8031.JPGTower at the south corner of the house</p><br>
<p>Olana south side.JPGDetail of the southwest facade</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 40.jpgStudio addition at the northeast</p><br>
<p>Olana - IMG 8029.JPGCloseup of the piazza and studio tower</p><br>
<h3>Interior views</h3><br>
<p>Olana 2017 04.jpgCourt Hall</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 32.jpgDining Room</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 23.jpgA first-floor interior</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 21.jpgFireplace in the studio</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 15.jpgA first-floor interior</p><br>
<p>Olana Main House First Floor Interior.jpgA first-floor interior</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 19.jpgPorch</p><br>
<p>2021A56 414 HR.jpgMain staircase</p><br>
<p>Olana 2017 28.jpgA second-floor bedroom</p><br>
<h2>Artworks created</h2><br>
<p>Frederic Church executed some of his most famous works at Olana, in a studio that stood on the hill above the Cosy Cottage. Throughout his life but especially in the 1850s, Church traveled throughout North and South America, making oil and pencil sketches that served as notes for the artwork to come. Although Churchs major artworks appear to be transcriptions of the landscape, they are, as Church called them, "compositions"—composed from his sketches and his own artistic intentions. In the 1860s and 1870s this process occurred at Olana, and also at Churchs Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City. Typically, Church did the bulk of his work in the studio at Olana, then finished the painting in New York. Church also made vibrant sketches of the Olana landscape; he framed a few and hung them in the main residence.</p><br>
<p>In the studio at Olana he made hundreds of pencil and oil technical drawings for stencils, mantels, banisters, and other architectural elements of the main house. With the onset of rheumatism in the 1870s, Church&#39;s painting became severely curtailed. Increasingly, he turned his attention to Olana itself, improving the landscape, buying artwork for the house, and building the studio wing.</p><br>
<p>Olana was one of several grand artists homes in the Hudson River valley, comparable to Albert Bierstadts Malkasten in Irvington (destroyed by fire in 1882) and Jasper Francis Cropsey&#39;s Ever Rest, in Hastings-on-Hudson.</p><br>
<h2>Viewshed</h2><br>
<p>The Olana Viewshed comprises panoramic views that begin in the Hudson River Valley and extend toward Massachusetts, Vermont, and Connecticut. To the west, the ridge of Sieghenburgh drops off abruptly, offering a view of the Hudson River through a series of native trees planted by Frederic Church in the nineteenth century. West of the Hudson River the eastern range of the Catskill Mountains can be viewed. To the southwest and south the terrain descends to Quarry Hill directing the eye three miles away toward Inbocht Bay. To the southeast and east Blue Hill rises in the distance. In 1876 a New York journalist reported "There are no finer views in the world than he can command from his windows." Church spent over thirty years meticulously designing the landscape—including the excavation of an artificial lake in 1873 to mirror the Hudson and add balance to the viewshed—meanwhile producing dozens of oil sketches of the view from Olana. The property on Long Hill was purchased by Church because of its grand views: "To his skeptical father (who was financing the purchase), Church argued that the lot was important in securing fine openings for the views."</p><br>
<p>After Frederic Church&#39;s lifetime, the Olana Partnership has been pivotal in discouraging the production of two industrial projects that would have impeded the Olana Viewshed. In 1977, The Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Power Authority of the State of New York held hearings on siting a nuclear power plant in Cementon, south of Catskill and in the Olana Viewshed. The proposed cooling tower would have reached 250 feet in diameter at its highest point discharging a heavy plume and obscuring views of the Catskill Mountains from several locations, including Olana. A painting of the south view of Olana by Frederic Church was used in the hearings as evidence to support the cultural and historical significance of the Olana Viewshed. In 1979 the Power Authority of the State of New York announced that it was abandoning plans for the proposed Cementon nuclear power plant.</p><br>
<p>On September 14, 1998, St. Lawrence Cement announced plans for a 2.2 million ton coal-fired cement plant in Hudson and Greenport, New York, near the banks of the Hudson River. In 2001, Riverkeeper and a broad environmental coalition, including Olana, petitioned for consulting party status in a New York State Department of Environmental Conservation permit hearing for the proposed project. On April 24, 2005, after severe protest from the Hudson Valley community and environmentalists, St. Lawrence Cement abandoned the Greenport project</p><br>
<p>Since 1992 Scenic Hudson and its conservation partners have contributed to the protection of more than 2,400 acres in the Olana Viewshed. In 2015, a conservation easement protected views from Letterbox Farm Collective, a farm nearby.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration and management</h2><br>
<p>Olana is managed by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, with support from the Olana Partnership. Both work to restore Olana to its 1890s appearance. A large museum and archive, part of the original Church property, is open to the public and includes over 700 works by Church as well as thousands of works of art by other artists, including paintings by Martin Johnson Heade, Arthur Parton and John Thomas Peele and numerous works by Church&#39;s close friend, the sculptor Erastus Dow Palmer. The archive, open to scholars, contains letters, scrapbooks, bills, receipts and other ephemera. A visitor center is housed in the former carriage house, and an upstairs bedroom has been converted into the Evelyn and Maurice Sharp Gallery, which shows changing exhibitions of artwork drawn mainly from the archival collections.</p><br>
<p>The site was closed during the 2006 season for extensive renovation. Stencils on the walls were stabilized and new carpeting was laid in the Court Hall. Curators and conservators performed rehabilitation work on furniture, upholstery and textiles. Fire safety and climate-control systems were improved. Commissioner Carol Ash said at the re-opening in May 2007, "The installation of new state-of-the-art equipment underscores the commitment of New York State to protect this remarkable historic landmark, and we look forward to once again showcasing the unique collections and extraordinary landscapes of one of our most important cultural resources."</p><br>
<p>The former wagon house in the barn complex now houses educational programs. Future plans include a reconstruction of the wagon house and a stabilization of the main barn, to better fit their role as year-round centers for education. Olana has been cited as an innovative example of a public-private partnership. Olana advocates the preservation of its viewshed by encouraging donations of scenic easements on properties and by discouraging development of industrial projects, such as a proposed cement plant and a proposed power plant.</p><br>
<h2>Historiography</h2><br>
<p>Olana has been the subject of scholarly study by a succession of students and experts on Churchs life. David C. Huntingtons cataloging and analysis in the mid-1960s is acknowledged as the first foundational work. Huntington is credited not only with saving the site from public auction but with bringing Churchs reputation from obscurity to prominence in relation to the Hudson River School. Huntington theorized that the sketches and paintings that Church displayed at Olana, ones he either kept outright or reacquired, were key to understanding the painters personal values.</p><br>
<p>Huntington supposed that the name "Olana" was a corruption of an ancient language—an article to that effect had been published in the 1890s in the Boston Herald and believed for many decades. In 1966, Huntington re-established this story, writing that the Arabic word Alana, meaning "our place on high", was possibly transliterated to Latin as "Olana". Art historian and Church scholar Gerald L. Carr found no confirmation that the Churches ever considered this meaning; instead, Carr believed the answer to be in a copy of Strabos Geographica in Olanas library, a multi-volume reference work given by Isabel Church to her husband on Christmas 1879. situated on a hillside near the Araxes River in Artaxata, a city in modern-day Armenia, close to the eastern border of Turkey and the northwestern arm of Iran. Carr assumed that the Churches began calling their residence "Olana" after reading Strabo. John Ashbery agreed, writing in 1997 that Strabo&#39;s Artaxata "was one of the supposed sites of the Garden of Eden", and that the Churches must have felt kinship with both the idyllic and the protected qualities of ancient Olana.</p><br>
<h2>Visitation</h2><br>
<p>Olana is in the south part of Greenport, New York, in Columbia County, south of Hudson and east of Catskill. By car, the estate can be reached from New York State Route 9G, less than an hour&#39;s drive south of Albany. The nearest Amtrak train station is in Hudson. The grounds are open during the day throughout the year and the original carriage roads are accessible. Organized tours of the residence are generally available Tuesday through Sunday, and holiday Mondays, from April to October. From November to March, tours are conducted Friday through Sunday. Reservations for house tours are recommended. Photography is permitted anywhere on the grounds, including the interior of the house. The Hudson River Skywalk, a pedestrian walkway across the Rip Van Winkle Bridge opened in 2019, connects the site to the Thomas Cole National Historic Site in Catskill.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Olana was featured in Bob Vila&#39;s A&E Network four-part production, Guide to Historic Homes of America. For the first episode, on the subject of historic homes in the Northeastern USA, Vila and his crew traveled to five locations containing historic structures, including Olana.</p><br>
<p>The Marc Cohn 1998 album Burning the Daze features a song titled "Olana," about Church and the building of the estate.</p><br>
<p>Skylands is a 1,119 acre estate property located in Ringwood State Park in Ringwood, New Jersey, a borough in Passaic County in the state of New Jersey. The Skylands property consists of the historic Skylands Manor mansion, and the New Jersey Botanical Garden; the botanical garden is 96 acre and it is open to the public year-round. The Skylands property is within the Ramapo Mountains and it is maintained by the Skylands Association. The property is marketed with the garden as New Jersey State Botanical Garden at Skylands.</p><br>
<p>The house and gardens, including formal gardens and specimen plantings, were built in the 1920s by Clarence MacKenzie Lewis, a New York City stockbroker and civil engineer. Lewis hired architect John Russell Pope to design the 44-room Tudor revival manor house. The manor is a reproduction English mansion featuring rectangular, bay and oriel windows. A nine-hole golf course once graced this property. In addition, from circa 1950 the property was used as a college campus for Shelton College until in 1966 the state purchased the 1,117 acres of Skylands from the college, which moved to Cape May.</p><br>
<p>The estate was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 28, 1990, for its significance in architecture and landscape architecture.</p><br>
<h2>Garden</h2><br>
<p>In 1966 the entire estate was bought by the State of New Jersey to form a State Botanical Garden whose settings include a Lilac Garden, Magnolia Walk, the Wild Flower Garden, the Crab Apple Vista, an allée of 166 trees extending almost a half-mile, and the Perennial Garden. The entire section now comprises slightly over 4,000 acres (16 km) of parkland.</p><br>
<p>The Winter Garden included New Jersey&#39;s largest Jeffery pine (Pinus jeffreyi). Its east side features a weeping beech beside a century-old upright beech, as well as a Japanese umbrella pine. Other interesting non-native trees include an Algerian fir (Abies numidica) and Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica).</p><br>
<p>Salem Street Burying Ground is a cemetery located at the intersection of Salem Street and Riverside Avenue in Medford, Massachusetts. The Salem Street Burying Ground was used exclusively from the late 17th century to the late 19th century for the burial of the town&#39;s wealthy. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981.</p><br>
<p>The Salem Street Burying Ground was originally the private cemetery of the Wade family. It was acquired by the town of Medford in May 1717. The earliest stone is dated 1683 and the latest 1881. Records indicate that there are six hundred people buried there, but there are only 485 markers. There are several known reasons for this discrepancy.</p><br>
<p>During the 17th century, one gravestone often marked the burial place of several members of the same family. The final resting place of no less than four members of the Wade family is marked by a single large, brown, slate block; among the largest in the burial ground. Similarly, near the Riverside Avenue entrance of the cemetery, a flagpole and granite stone marker (pictured) commemorate the graves of several unknown Revolutionary war soldiers buried there. The marker&#39;s text reads, "In Memory of New Hampshire Soldiers who Fell at Bunker Hill Buried in this Town and Interred at this Spot."</p><br>
<p>Records also indicated that there are more than fifty enslaved people buried in unmarked graves in the southwest corner of the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery and the area surrounding it were settled as a plantation owned by the absent Matthew Craddock, the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, in 1630. The land was used as a private farm and plantation for forty-five years. From 1660 to 1675, the second owner of the land, Edward Collins, broke the land up into smaller tracts which were sold individually. The purchasers, the Tufts, Bradshaw, Willis, Wade, Brooks, Francis, and Whitmore families became the founders of the town of Medford.</p><br>
<p>The largest farm in the area was owned by Jonathan Wade. When Wade died in 1689, he left the estate to his son, Dudley. It included "that little pasture called the burying place". By 1717, the Wade family plot had become the town burying ground.</p><br>
<h2>The graves</h2><br>
<p>Among several notable figures buried there are Massachusetts Governor and Revolutionary War figure John Brooks, whose grave is marked by a large obelisk located in the approximate center of the Burying Ground, and Sarah Bradlee Fulton, a Revolutionary War heroine whose grave is marked by a rock to the left of the Brooks monument.</p><br>
<p>The details of 35 graves have been documented. Starting from the Burying Ground&#39;s northwest corner and working eastward, the graves were selected for documentation in alternating groups of five (five were chosen and their data recorded, the next five were skipped, the following five chosen, and so on). The information collected included first and last names, ages, birth dates (when available), death dates and gravestone iconography. Also included were any pertinent titles (Deacon, Captain, Major, etc.).</p><br>
<p>Many of the markers fail to provide any specific birth date, noting instead the age of the deceased in years, months, and days. The tombstones of the female dead often omit a first name (for example, "Here lyes buried the wife John Chalcedony, Mrs. Chalcedony").</p><br>
<p>By far the most prevalent image on the tombstones is the winged skull motif, which represents an ascension into Heaven. Among other symbols engraved on the stones are the willow tree, representing sadness or mourning; the hourglass, representing the passage of time; and bones, representing death or decay.</p><br>
<p>For the most part the markers are headstones, but there are also three obelisks, two table tombs, one double stone, and three large slabs. There is also a large, tall block of what appears to be granite in the most southerly corner of the cemetery that has no markings of any kind, and it is unclear whether this is a memorial of or just surplus stone. There is no mention of it in any of the records consulted.</p><br>
<p>Aside from that granite block, most of the markers are made from slate.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, a memorial for the unnamed enslaved people buried in the cemetery was dedicated.</p><br>
<p>Crescent Hill is a neighborhood four miles  east of downtown Louisville, Kentucky USA. This area was originally called "Beargrass" because it sits on a ridge between two forks of Beargrass Creek. The boundaries of Crescent Hill are N Ewing Ave to the St. Matthews city limit  by Brownsboro Road to Lexington Road. Frankfort Avenue generally bisects the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The Crescent Hill Historic District, roughly bounded by Brownsboro and Lexington Rds., Peterson, Zorn, and Frankfort Aves., and Crabbs Lane, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Development first began during the 1850s when the Louisville and Lexington turnpike (now Frankfort Avenue) and the Louisville and Frankfort railroad were built through the area. In 1853 a 38 acre fair grounds were built and were used to host the Agriculture and Technology fair, which had 20,000 visitors on one day in 1857. In 1883 the fair grounds were razed and St Joseph&#39;s Orphanage was built in its place.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th century The City of Louisville annexed the old town of Crescent Hill. The Crescent Hill Community Council was incorporated in the early 1970s and became very active after the tornado of April 1974. In the early 1980s the CHCC formed the Peterson-Dumesnil House Foundation and purchased the house -at 301 South Peterson - from the Jefferson County Board of Education.</p><br>
<p>Registered historic sites in Crescent Hill include the Louisville Water Company Crescent Hill Reservoir and the Peterson-Dumesnil House.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of 2000, the population of Crescent Hill was 7,566, of which 91.4% are white, 4.2% are listed as other, 3.1% are black, and 1.3% are Hispanic. College graduates are 52.3% of the population, people without a high school degree are 8%. Females outnumber males 54.9% to 45.12%.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Crescent Hill has a lending library, a branch of the Louisville Free Public Library.</p><br>
<p>Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, a private institution, is located at Crescent Hill.</p><br>
<p>The Germantown White House  is a historic mansion in the Germantown section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is the oldest surviving presidential residence, having twice housed Founding Father George Washington during his presidency.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and ownership</h2><br>
<p>The house&#39;s alternate name comes from its first and last owners: David Deshler, who built it beginning in 1752; and Elliston P. Morris, Jr., who donated it to the National Park Service in 1948.</p><br>
<p>Deshler, a merchant, bought a 2 acre lot from George and Anna Bringhurst in 1751–52, and constructed a four-room summer cottage. Twenty years later he built a 3-story, 9-room addition to the front, creating one of the most elegant homes in the region.</p><br>
<p>Isaac Franks, a former colonel in the Continental Army, bought the house following Deshler&#39;s 1792 death. It was he who rented it to President Washington.</p><br>
<p>Later, the house was sold to Elliston and John Perot, and in 1834 to Elliston&#39;s son-in-law, Samuel B. Morris. The Morris family lived in the house for over a hundred years, before its 1948 donation to the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Revolutionary War</h3><br>
<p>On October 4, 1777, it was a scene of fighting in the Battle of Germantown, after which British General Sir William Howe occupied the house.</p><br>
<h3>1793</h3><br>
<p>When the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793 struck Philadelphia, President Washington remained in the city until September, before making his regular autumn trip home to Mount Vernon. He and a small group of slaves returned in early November, but Philadelphia was under quarantine and they were rerouted to Germantown, then 10 mi outside the city.</p><br>
<p>He first occupied the Dove House, the headmaster&#39;s residence for Germantown Academy (now extensively altered and part of Pennsylvania School for the Deaf). He also traveled to Reading, Pennsylvania, 60 mi northwest of the city, to see if it would make a suitable emergency capital.</p><br>
<p>Returning to Germantown, from November 16 to 30, he occupied the Isaac Franks house. His wife Martha, two of her grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis, and more of their slaves and staff joined him late in the stay.</p><br>
<h3>1794</h3><br>
<p>The following September and October, Washington and his family returned to the Franks house for vacation, although he left early to deal with the Whiskey Rebellion in Western Pennsylvania. He met there four times with his cabinet: Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Attorney General Edmund Randolph, and Secretary of War Henry Knox. The President posed for painter Gilbert Stuart, who kept a studio nearby, and the family attended the German Reformed Church across the square.</p><br>
<p>Four slaves were held by the Washingtons at the Franks house: Oney Judge, Austin (her brother), Moll, and Hercules.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>The house is administered by Independence National Historical Park. In 1972, the house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The house is also a contributing property of the Colonial Germantown Historic District. In 2009, the National Park Service changed the official name of the house from the "Deshler-Morris House" to the "Germantown White House."</p><br>
<h2>Bringhurst House</h2><br>
<p>The Bringhurst House, neighboring the Germantown White House on the northwest, was originally owned by John Bringhurst (February 19, 1725 – March 18, 1795), a carriage builder and inventor of the Germantown Wagon; in 1780 he built a carriage for George Washington. His estate consisted of 19 acre in Germantown, and was eventually split up by his heirs. Today, near the current historic site, Bringhurst Street is a street named after him which lies on the edge of his former land.</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant Colonel John Bird was lying sick in the Bringhurst House when the American army attacked on the morning of October 4, 1777. Bird arose from bed to lead his men, but was mortally wounded in the battle. Although a surgeon tried to treat him in Melchoir Meng&#39;s house situated on what is now a part of Vernon Park, he was carried back to the Bringhurst House, where he died.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, the Bringhurst house was donated to the National Park Service from the Germantown Savings Bank in order to "assure access, light, and air for the historic structure". The Bringhurst property is currently in the process of conversion into an exhibition space and welcome center for the Germantown White House landscape.</p><br>
<p>Page-Vawter House in the town of Ansted in Fayette County, West Virginia was built in 1889-90 by company carpenters of the Gauley Mountain Coal Company for the family of William Nelson Page, who was company president. The palatial Victorian mansion is located on a knoll in the middle of town. William and Emma  Page raised their four children there, attended by a staff of 8 servants.</p><br>
<p>Architect William Minter designed the house in a Gothic style. It has 15 regular rooms, plus a butler&#39;s pantry and a dressing room. There are 11 fireplaces with hand-carved wooden mantels; most are in different styles. Even the doors have ornately decorated hinges. The exterior features 52 8-foot-tall windows</p><br>
<p>According to author and railroad historian H. Reid in his book The Virginian Railway (Kalmbach, 1961), it was in this mansion that Page developed the plans for the coal-hauling Virginian Railway, which was financed by industrialist Henry Huddleston Rogers and became the "Richest Little Railroad in the World" after its completion in 1909. The nearby railroad town of Page was named for him.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was later occupied by several generations of the Vawter family. In the 21st century, it still stands as evidence of the once-thriving coal business. It underwent a ground up restoration in 2007 by Jim and Debbie Campbell who are the current owners.</p><br>
<p>The Page-Vawter House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<p>The Peale is a community museum in Baltimore, Maryland, which opened in 2022 after a 5-year renovation. It occupies the first building in the Western Hemisphere to be designed and built specifically as a museum.</p><br>
<p>Rembrandt Peales original museum was open from 1814 until 1829. The collection was moved to a new building as the Baltimore Museum and Gallery of Fine Arts. The original building later served as Baltimores City Hall from 1830 to 1875 and from 1878 to 1887 as one of the first grammar schools and the first high school for African-American students in Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>The Building was renovated and rededicated in 1931 as the Municipal Museum of Baltimore. It was renovated again starting in 1978 and was reopened in 1981 as the Peale Museum. The Municipal Museum closed in 1997 and the entire collection was moved to the Maryland Historical Society.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Peale&#39;s Baltimore Museum</h3><br>
<p>In 1814, artist Rembrandt Peale established "Peales Baltimore Museum and Gallery of Fine Arts" at 225 North Holliday Street between East Saratoga and East Lexington streets in Baltimore. Rembrandt was the second son of Charles Willson Peale, the artist and founder of Peales Philadelphia Museum. The museum occupied the first building in the Western Hemisphere to be designed and built specifically as a museum. It was designed by architect Robert Cary Long, Sr. Rembrandt Peale&#39;s museum featured portraits of famous Americans, including some by its founder, as well as the complete skeleton of a prehistoric mastodon exhumed by Charles Willson Peale in 1801. During the Battle of Baltimore a month after opening, Rembrandt Peale, his wife, and seven children spent the night in the museum hoping that the British military would think the museum was their home and spare the building.</p><br>
<p>The fame of Peales museum was such that it was occasionally described as simply the "Baltimore Museum." Rembrandts brother, Rubens Peale, managed the museum until 1829.</p><br>
<p>Extensive reviews by John Neal of the museum&#39;s annual exhibitions in 1822 and 1823 are some of the earliest published works of American art criticism.</p><br>
<p>The museum was the first building in Baltimore to have gas lighting.</p><br>
<p>In 1829, the museum building was sold due to financial difficulties and the exhibits were moved to a newly constructed building on the northwest corner of North Calvert Street and East Baltimore Street, one block south of the Battle Monument Square and the Baltimore City Courthouse. This second building became the Baltimore Museum and Gallery of Fine Arts (also known as the Baltimore Museum Theatre) in 1834.</p><br>
<h3>Other uses</h3><br>
<p>From 1830 to 1875, the museum&#39;s former building served as the first Baltimore City Hall.</p><br>
<p>The building was turned over to the city&#39;s Board of School Commissioners and the Baltimore City Public Schools. In 1878, it became the Male and Female Colored School No. 1. The high school, which opened in 1883, was the predecessor of Frederick Douglass High School.</p><br>
<p>The building housed the Bureau of Water Supply from 1887 to 1916 and was rented by various shops and factories from 1916 to 1928.</p><br>
<h3>Modern museums</h3><br>
<p>By 1928, the building had been repeatedly condemned and was in danger of demolition. It was renovated and rededicated in 1931 as the Municipal Museum of Baltimore. The renovation of the building was supervised by John Henry Scarff, a Baltimore-born architect, painter, and archaeologist, who later worked closely on policies governing looted art and damaged monuments during and after World War II.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965.</p><br>
<p>The building underwent a major two-year renovation starting in 1978 and was reopened in 1981 as the Peale Museum. In 1985, the Peale Museum became part of the Baltimore City Life Museums (BCLM), a consortium of historic homes, building and sites.</p><br>
<p>BCLM folded in 1997 and the entire Peale Museum collection was moved to the Maryland Historical Society, now called the Maryland Center for History and Culture, leaving the original building on North Holliday Street vacant until it was reopened for periodic public programs and events in 2017.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, a campaign was being waged by a Maryland group to raise $4 million for restoration of the museum. The restoration project was completed in 2022 and "the Peale", "Baltimore’s Community Museum" opened in August 2022.</p><br>
<p>Big Meadows is a recreational area of the Shenandoah National Park in Madison County and Page County, in the US state of Virginia. The meadow is located on the Skyline Drive at Milepost 51 and contains the park&#39;s Harry F. Byrd Visitor Center, a lodge, camp store, and camping area. Several hiking trails can be accessed from Big Meadows, including the Mill Prong Trail which leads to Rapidan Camp on the Rapidan River, the fishing retreat of President Herbert Hoover from 1929–1933, which is now restored to its 1930s configuration.</p><br>
<p>President Roosevelt used Big Meadows in 1935 as the site for dedicating Shenandoah National Park and Skyline Drive. In 1962, during the Ash Wednesday Storm, Big Meadows recorded Virginias greatest 24-hour snowfall with 33 inches, and the total storm snowfall was 42 inches at Big Meadows. In the Blizzard of 1996, Big Meadows recorded Virginias greatest storm snowfall accumulation at 47 inches. Big Meadows Site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>Big Meadows has a dining hall, gift shop, horse trails, and a series of lodges for guests to stay in. Each lodge guestroom has a stone fireplace and a supply of firewood, although the building has natural gas-fired central heating - the fireplaces are for decorative purposes only.</p><br>
<p>Big Meadows Wayside has a campground with some 200 lots. There is a shower building, laundry accommodations, a storage building for packaged campfire wood, and a small office at which ice, firewood and basic supplies can be purchased.</p><br>
<p>There are several hiking trails:</p><br>
<p>The summit of Blackrock Mountain is located 0.3 mile (0.5 km) from the main campground and adjacent to the Big Meadows Lodge. It is the highest point at Big Meadows and provides a scenic view of the Shenandoah Valley.</p><br>
<h2>The Big Meadow</h2><br>
<p>A part of the campground area, called The Big Meadow, is adjacent to the camp store and the Byrd Visitor center. Campers often wander the grassy trails of the meadow, looking for blueberries and blackberries. Usually, bears have already foraged the ripe berries before hikers arrive; in early-morning hikes, bears are sometimes spotted around the edges of the meadow.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>There are white-tailed deer, chipmunks, skunks, squirrels and a variety of birds who visit the campground area and are very used to people. The deer are eager to find campers who will hand out food and treats. The rangers discourage this, but the result is that the deer wander the campgrounds throughout the day. It is not uncommon to have a deer take food from a human&#39;s hand in a campsite. Daytime bear sightings are not uncommon. The black bears are not aggressive, and no attacks on humans have been reported. The park provides bear-proof metal lockers around the camp area to protect food at night.</p><br>
<p>The biggest concern is the skunk population. Like the deer, they forage the campsites for food. Campers will sometimes note the aroma of a skunk who was startled during the night. Wise campers ensure there is no food on the ground to attract skunks, and that the tent flap is secured against skunk entry.</p><br>
<p>Other wildlife includes venomous snakes, although they are relatively rare. The park houses rattlesnakes and copperheads, as well as garter snakes and other non-venomous species.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The hottest temperature recorded in Big Meadows was 95 &deg;F on July 24, 1991, while the coldest temperature recorded was -26 &deg;F on January 18, 1994.</p><br>
<p>Fort Clinch is a 19th-century masonry coastal fortification, built as part of the Third System of seacoast defense conceived by the United States. It is located on a peninsula near the northernmost point of Amelia Island in Nassau County, Florida. The fort lies to the northeast of Fernandina Beach at the entrance to the Cumberland Sound, in the northeast part of the state. Today it is included within the boundaries of Fort Clinch State Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>This site was first fortified in 1736 by the Spanish, when they held colonies in Florida. From 1736, various nations to control the territory have garrisoned and fortified this site to protect the entrance to the St. Marys River and Cumberland Sound.</p><br>
<p>After the end of the Second Seminole War, the United States started construction of a fort, later named Fort Clinch, in 1847. It was part of its Third System of coastal defenses conceived earlier in the century, which guided fortifications throughout this period. The fortified compound is pentagonal in shape, with both inner and outer walls, and consists of almost five million bricks. There are corner bastions and embrasures in the outer walls and several structures in the interior courtyards, including a two-story barracks. The fort was named in honor of General Duncan Lamont Clinch after his death in 1849. General Clinch fought in the War of 1812 and was an important figure in the First and Second Seminole Wars.</p><br>
<p>Confederate forces seized the fort in early 1861. It was used as a safe haven for Confederate blockade runners during the first year of the Civil War. However, changes in technology, specifically the development of rifled cannon, had improved weaponry to the point that the fort&#39;s brick walls were vulnerable to attacks and thus obsolete. In March 1862 General Robert E. Lee ordered abandonment of the fort in order to use scarce troops in other areas. Afterwards Federal troops re-occupied the fort, taking control of the adjacent Georgia and Florida coasts. They used the fort as the base of Union operations in the area throughout the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The fort was placed on caretaker status in 1869; it remained so until 1898, when the Army garrisoned it during the short Spanish–American War. In September of that year, the Army abandoned it again. The fort gradually deteriorated.</p><br>
<p>During the Great Depression, workers of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) began restoration of the fort during the 1930s. It was restored to the Civil War era. In 1935, the State of Florida bought 256 acre that included the then-abandoned fort and the surrounding area. Fort Clinch State Park including the fort, opened to the public in 1938.</p><br>
<p>The fort was closed to the public during World War II and used as a communications and security post. It was re-opened to public visits after the war ended.</p><br>
<p>The fort was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. It is interpreted largely in terms of its use as a base of Union operations during the American Civil War. State Park personnel reenact military life at the fort, which is open from 8:00am until sundown, year-round.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational activities</h2><br>
<p>Fort Clinch has a living history program. Visitors can interact with and learn from reenactors who dress in period-appropriate fashion and portray individuals who lived in the 1860s. On the first weekend of every month a soldier garrison fires cannons and demonstrates other battlefield skills.</p><br>
<h2>Photos</h2><br>
<p>Fort Clinch, Florida, U.S - entrance.jpgThe entrance (2015)</p><br>
<p>The Marin County Civic Center, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, is located in San Rafael, California, the county seat of Marin County, California, United States. Groundbreaking for the Civic Center Administration Building took place in 1960, after Wrights death and under the watch of Wrights protégé, Aaron Green; it was completed in 1962. The Hall of Justice was begun in 1966 and completed in 1969. Veterans Memorial Auditorium opened in 1971, and the Exhibit Hall opened in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Located away from the former county seat in downtown San Rafael, the expansive complex stretches across two valleys just east of US 101. Its pink stucco walls, blue roof and scalloped balconies are distinctive. The smaller wing is the county administration building and the larger wing is the Hall of Justice, joined by a round structure on a small hill that houses a branch of the Marin County Free Library.</p><br>
<p>A battle between factions of the Marin County Board of Supervisors played out through the selection of the site and the architect, the financing of the project, and its eventual completion. The Marin County Civic Center is a state and National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The nearby fairgrounds host the Marin County Fair in July.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The selection of Frank Lloyd Wright in 1957 to design the Civic Center was controversial. The Civic Center project was Wrights largest public project, and encompassed an entire campus of civic structures. The post office was the only federal government project of Wrights career. Wrights design borrowed ideas and forms from Wrights Broadacre City concept, first published in 1932.</p><br>
<h3>Main building</h3><br>
<p>The principal structure consists of a four-story, 580 ft long Administration Building and a three-story, 880 ft long Hall of Justice at a lower elevation, joined at a 120-degree angle with an 80 ft diameter rotunda. The Hall of Justice spans a small valley, arching twice over an access road and a parking area, while the Administration Building spans a smaller ravine. Both structures are entered through archways on their lower levels. The long principal facades are marked by shallow non-structural arches of decreasing span with each story. The arches, which are framed in metal with a stucco appliqué, overlap slightly at the lower level. On the intermediate level, they appear to stand on short slender gold-anodized columns, and on the top level, they become round openings with gold railings directly under the deep roof overhang. The railings themselves have a circular pattern. The bright blue roof is itself patterned with arched cut-outs and raised circular patterns The building wings are arranged as a barrel vault shape on either side of the central galley, asymmetrically disposed. Interior guardrails at the atrium are solid stucco with no metal elements. Entrances are controlled by vertical grills of gold-anodized metal with rounded tops and bottoms, rather than doors. The eaves are embellished with an arched fascia with small gold balls inset in each arch, a pattern repeated in the atria.</p><br>
<p>The rotunda on the central hill houses the county library and a central cafeteria. Its 172 ft gold spire was meant to house a radio transmitter, as well as the boiler plant&#39;s chimney. The interiors are arranged around open atria or "malls" as Wright called them, which allow natural light into the space. Originally open to the sky, the malls were later covered with skylights designed by William Wesley Peters.</p><br>
<p>Wrights concept envisioned a gold-colored roof, which proved to be impossible to obtain in a long-lasting material. After Wrights death, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright chose a bright blue color that would weather well, gaining a softer color with age. The color choice, together with the pink stucco walls, was initially controversial, causing the building to become known as "Big Pink". The only large gold element is the spire at the rotunda.</p><br>
<h3>Accessory buildings</h3><br>
<p>The Post Office building is a one-story elliptical building near the entrance to the complex. Its facade repeats the arch motif, with circular embellishments on its canopy. The interior features an elliptical lobby.</p><br>
<p>The nearby Veterans&#39; Memorial Auditorium was designed by the Taliesin Associated Architects and was completed in 1971 in a manner compatible with the main complex. The main hall seats 1960 in an amphitheater arrangement. A separate Showcase Theater seats 300, and the exhibition hall can accommodate up to 2000 patrons.</p><br>
<p>The original Hall of Justice design incorporated the Marin County Jail. As the jail outgrew its space a number of proposals were advanced for a new facility adjoining the Civic Center. A new, mostly underground jail was completed in 1994 in the hilltop immediately to the west of the Hall of Justice, designed by AECOM with 222 cells and 363 beds. The jail connects to the Hall of Justice by an underground link. The design concept was originally suggested by Aaron Green. The final design was reached after unsuitable underground and above-ground designs were rejected in the 1980s. Natural lighting of interior spaces is provided by skylit light wells over the common space of each of six pods.</p><br>
<p>A Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit train station was constructed nearby which bears the same name.</p><br>
<h2>Development</h2><br>
<p>The Marin Civic Center arose from a desire to consolidate county services at a single location, away from the center of San Rafael. The idea was combined with a proposed county fairground, and 140 acre of the Scettrini ranch were purchased in 1956 for $551,416 along USA Highway 101 near Santa Venetia. The same year a selection committee was convened to select an architect, interviewing 26 firms, with a strong showing from Richard Neutra. Frank Lloyd Wright was not interviewed and had indicated that he would not participate in a competitive selection. At the instigation of supervisor Vera Schultz, committee members and four county supervisors met Wright in June 1957 when he visited Berkeley to lecture at the University of California. Schultz was the most ardent backer of Frank Lloyd Wright as prospective civic center architect. If not for Schultzs support in the face of heated opposition, Wrights version of the center would never have been built. a conservative candy manufacturer from San Anselmo, attempted to prevent Wright from getting the commission. On June 27 the Board of Supervisors voted 4–1, with Fusselman dissenting, to retain Wright. Wright arrived in San Rafael two days later. He was 90 years old.</p><br>
<p>Fusselman, the holdout supervisor, represented a conservative base that was opposed to the rapid pace of change in Marin County and to the proposed move from the center of San Rafael. Wrights fee of 10% of the construction cost drew criticism, as it was 2% higher than that proposed by other firms. Fusselman found a supporter in Wisconsin State Assemblyman Carroll Metzner, a virulent opponent of Wright in Wisconsin who appeared with Fusselman on local radio in Marin to denounce Wrights "socialist" design philosophy. Fusselman was also supported by the local chapter of the American Legion. At the board meeting that confirmed Wrights appointment Legionniare Bryson Reinhardt read into the record a denunciation of Wright as a supporter of Communism during World War II, prompting an angry response from Wright, who threatened to walk away from the project. Opponents demanded a referendum on the design, which was counteracted by an effective public relations campaign by supporters. Wright was directed to proceed with detailed design on April 28, 1958. In March 1959 Wright was appointed to design the post office. On April 9, 1959, Wright died, aged 91. Supervisor Fusselman attempted to obtain the plans as they were at Wrights death and to cut the fee by 2%. Both efforts were unsuccessful. Design of the first phase was complete in September 1959, directed by Wesley Peters and Aaron Green. The low bidder was Rothschild, Raffin and Weirick of San Francisco for $3,638,735 for the building and $596,470 for site development.</p><br>
<p>Ground was broken on February 15, 1960, at a ceremony attended by Wrights widow, Olgivanna, Wrights son Lloyd Wright and grandson Eric Lloyd Wright, but not by Fusselman. it for use as a hospital, to replace a hospital that had been condemned. use by an independent architectural firm, led to the lifting of the stop-work order, construction resumed a week later. The contractor sued for time and money lost during the stoppage. There was no further political opposition. The post office was the first building to be completed, and was dedicated on May 19, 1962. The Administration Building was dedicated on October 13, 1962, again without Fusselman.</p><br>
<p>The Hall of Justice was financed by a special bond passed by referendum in 1965, which allocated $7.75 million to the $11.756 million cost of the new wing. Work by the contractor, Robert E. McKee of Dallas, Texas, was scheduled to be complete by October 1968. Strikes, bad weather, delivery problems for materials and design changes pushed the proposed completion to July 1969. The Hall of Justice was finally dedicated on December 13, 1969.</p><br>
<h2>Attacks</h2><br>
<p>In August 1970 the Civic Center, which houses the Marin County Superior Court, was the scene of an attempted jailbreak led by Jonathan Jackson, the brother of Black Panther militant George Jackson, demanding the release of the so-called "Soledad Brothers". Jackson released several prisoners in the courtroom and the group took a number of hostages, including the presiding judge, Harold Haley. While they were attempting to escape, four people, including Judge Haley and Jonathan Jackson, were killed. The story, which featured dramatic photographs, was carried in newspapers nationally. Black Panther activist Angela Davis was eventually tied to the case, prompting her to go on the run before being caught and ultimately acquitted on charges of supplying firearms to Jonathan Jackson. Aaron Green designed a landscaped area near the Hall of Justice as a memorial to Judge Haley. Later that same year, in October 1970, the Weather Underground detonated a bomb at the Courthouse in retaliation.</p><br>
<h2>Landmark designations</h2><br>
<p>In recognition of its exceptional design the Marin County Civic Center main building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 17, 1991, and was designated a National Historic Landmark the same day. It is also a California Historical Landmark, Number 999. In 2015 and 2016, it and other Wright buildings were considered for designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 2016, the nomination to the World Heritage List was not approved by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. A revised 2018 proposal removed the Marin County Civic Center from the list of nominated buildings. That list of Wright buildings was approved in 2019.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Marin County Civic Center was a filming location for director George Lucass first feature-length film, THX 1138 (1971). Lucas later used elements of the Civic Centers design as inspiration for structures on Naboo in the Star Wars prequel trilogy. The building also inspired concept designs for the yacht of Dryden Vos in Disney&#39;s Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018).</p><br>
<p>Parts of Peter Frampton&#39;s live album Frampton Comes Alive! (1976) were recorded during his performance at the Marin County Civic Center on June 13, 1975.</p><br>
<p>The Grateful Dead recorded their album In the Dark (1987) in front of an empty house at the Marin Veterans Memorial Auditorium.</p><br>
<p>The exterior and interior views of the buildings were featured in the science-fiction film Gattaca (1997).</p><br>
<p>The Philipsburgh Building, also known as Philipsburgh Hall, is an architectural landmark building in Getty Square in downtown Yonkers, New York. The grand, Beaux-Arts style structure was designed by G. Howard Chamberlin and built in 1904 using a unique all-concrete construction making it the first fireproof office building in Westchester County. For years, the enormous grand ballroom within, with its 30-foot  ceilings and extensive gold leaf decor, was a fixture of the social scene in Yonkers, playing host to all manner of meetings, parties and theatrical productions including speeches by Theodore and Franklin D. Roosevelt (resulting in its being named "The Roosevelt Ballroom" by Encore Caterers.</p><br>
<p>In the latter half of the 20th century, the building and the neighborhood around it fell into physical and economic disrepair. By the 1980s, most of the building had been converted to low-rent apartments, while parts of it were left entirely unoccupied. In the 1990s, the building benefited from a renewed interest in local development, and was heavily renovated and restored. The grand "Roosevelt" ballroom once again found its place as a focal point of local culture.</p><br>
<p>The building was restored and renamed the Philipsburgh Performing Arts Center (PPAC, pronounced "P-pack" locally) in 2001. The PPAC concept was short-lived, however, and by early 2005 it had ceased to be. The building&#39;s primary occupant is a South Asian restaurant called "Nawab" and its owners are also the caterers for events at the Ballroom.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mason, in San Francisco, California is a former United States Army post located in the northern Marina District, alongside San Francisco Bay. Fort Mason served as an Army post for more than 100 years, initially as a coastal defense site and subsequently as a military port facility. During World War II, it was the principal port for the Pacific campaign.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mason originated as a coastal defense site during the American Civil War. The nucleus of the property was owned by John C. Frémont and disputes over compensation by the United States continued into 1968. In 1882 the defenses were named for Richard Barnes Mason, a military governor before statehood. Fort Mason became the headquarters for an Army command that included California and the Hawaiian Islands from 1904 to 1907. In 1912 the Army began building a port facility with piers and warehouses to be a home base for ships of the Army Transport Service serving Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines and other Pacific Army posts and focus of Army supply for the Pacific.</p><br>
<p>On 6 May 1932 that port facility was designated the San Francisco Port of Embarkation, modeled on the New York Port of Embarkation which supplied USA Army forces in World War I, to serve the Pacific. Fort Mason then became both the headquarters of the command that was the San Francisco Port of Embarkation and an element of that command. The San Francisco Port of Embarkation assumed responsibility for the Army Transport Service, the San Francisco General Quartermaster Depot at Fort Mason and the Overseas Replacement and Discharge Service at Fort McDowell, California. When war came to Europe in 1939 the New York Port of Embarkation was again operating as a port of embarkation on a World War I scale with associated camps and facilities and sub ports soon to be established. On the Pacific only the port at San Francisco was operating. The Army recognized that the relatively small port facility at Fort Mason was inadequate for supporting major wartime operations in the Pacific. In early 1941 the Army began acquiring land and facilities for major expansion in Oakland, Seattle and elsewhere in the San Francisco area. By the end of the war Fort Mason and thirteen other facilities composed the San Francisco Port of Embarkation.</p><br>
<p>The San Francisco Port of Embarkation was the second largest of eight Ports of Embarkation through World War II and was disestablished 1 October 1955. It then became headquarters for the Pacific Transportation Terminal Command.</p><br>
<p>Today it is part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area and the site of several cultural facilities. The entire fort area is listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places, with 49 buildings of historic significance, spread over 1,200 acre. while the lower port area is a National Historic Landmark District, designated for its role in World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Fort Mason can be split into two distinct areas. The upper area, sometimes called Fort Mason, is situated on a headland and was the site of the original coastal fortifications. The lower area, Fort Mason Center, is situated close to water level to the west of Upper Fort Mason, and is the site of the former military port, with its piers and warehouses. The Marina Green lies to the west of Fort Mason, while Aquatic Park is to the east.</p><br>
<h3>Black Point</h3><br>
<p>Black Point, a promontory point of the San Francisco coastline, is situated on the far point of the headland of Fort Mason. Originally named Punta Medanos and Punta de San José by the Spanish settlers, it was renamed Black Point after 1849. Black Point was named for the abundance of dark-colored California bay laurel trees that grew on the bluff. The shoreline of Black Point is the last remaining section of original coastline in San Francisco east of the Golden Gate Bridge.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Spanish and Mexican eras</h3><br>
<p>In 1797, the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco constructed the Bateria de Yerba Buena at Punta Medanos (now called Black Point) as an artillery battery to provide additional protection to the Yerba Buena anchorage. The site was only briefly occupied and was abandoned by 1806.</p><br>
<h3>Private ownership by John C. Frémont</h3><br>
<p>The nucleus of Fort Mason was a private property owned by John C. Frémont, the explorer of the western USA, who also spearheaded the conquest of California from Mexico, and ran as the first presidential nominee of the extant Republican Party in 1856. As alleged in a 1968 federal lawsuit filed by his descendants over the 70-acre parcel then at issue, Frémont bought a 13.5-acre property in the mid-1850s for $42,000, and then improved it by about $40,000.</p><br>
<p>Appointed a major general in the Union army at the start of the Civil War, Frémont&#39;s repeated serious conflicts with President Lincoln led him to resign by late 1862. In 1863, the government seized the property without payment, by executive order of Lincoln, on the grounds it was needed for the war effort. Frémont would again contest the US presidency in 1864, running as the candidate of Radical Democracy Party, only resigning the effort when Lincoln fired a political enemy in his cabinet as a concession.</p><br>
<p>The 1968 lawsuit was perhaps the last shot of a century-long legal struggle to obtain compensation for the seized realty. In 1870, the government returned property to 49 parties in the vicinity, but not to Frémont and a few others. At that time, Frémont was still very preoccupied with enough of the vast fortune he had made through gold-mining before the Civil War that the matter was unlikely of concern to him; but by 1872 he was in grave financial trouble he would never escape before his death in 1890. Over the years, at least 24 Congressional committees would vote to compensate Frémont, and finally in February 1898 President William McKinley signed a bill directing that the court of claims fix the compensation due. But in 1968 the Frémont heirs complained it had failed to carry out this direction, with John Frémont then recently dead and his widow Jessie over 70 years old.</p><br>
<h3>The fort as government property</h3><br>
<p>The Civil War prompted the construction of several coastal defense batteries located inside the Golden Gate. Initially these defenses were built as temporary wartime structures rather than permanent fortifications and one of these was constructed in 1864 at Point San Jose, as the location of Upper Fort Mason was then known. A breast-high wall of brick and mounts for six 10 in Rodman cannons and six 42-pounder guns were built on the site. Excavation in the early 1980s uncovered the well-preserved remains of the western-half of the temporary battery, and it has now been restored to its condition during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The fort was named Fort Mason in 1882, after Richard Barnes Mason, a former military governor of California.</p><br>
<p>President Grover Cleveland established the Endicott Board in 1885 for the purpose of modernizing the nation&#39;s coastal fortifications. Chaired by Secretary of War William Endicott, the board recommended new defenses at 22 USA seaports, deeming San Francisco Harbor second only to that of New York in strategic importance. As a result, an extensive series of forts, batteries, and guns were built on the harbor, including Fort Mason.</p><br>
<p>In 1904, the previous Division of the Pacific (1869–91) was re-established and formally stood up as the Pacific Division with subordinate or related commands, including the Department of California (to include the Hawaiian Islands) and the Department of the Columbia. The Pacific Division was headquartered at Fort Mason, San Francisco. By the end of 1907, the War Department, under Secretary of War William Howard Taft, had eliminated the echelon of administrative units called Divisions and subsequently the Pacific Division that same year. Notably, the first and only commander of the Pacific Division was Major General Arthur MacArthur Jr from 1903 to 1907.</p><br>
<p>The piers and sheds of Lower Fort Mason were originally built from 1912 to warehouse army supplies and provide docking space and a base for ships of the Army Transport Service. By this time, the US Army began to build new posts in Hawaii, the Philippines, and various other Pacific islands. Most of the materiel for those posts was shipped through San Francisco. By 1915, the three piers together with their associated warehouse had been completed, and Fort Mason Tunnel driven under Upper Fort Mason to connect with the State Belt Railroad along the Embarcadero.</p><br>
<p>With these new facilities, Fort Mason was transformed from a harbor defense post into a logistical and transport hub for American military operations in the Pacific. The Army ferry provided scheduled transportation from Fort Mason to the processing center at Fort McDowell on Angel Island up to eight times per day during the war. was used to transport cavalry horses from Fort Mason&#39;s pier to Fort Mills.</p><br>
<h4>San Francisco Port of Embarkation (1932—1955)</h4><br>
<p>The San Francisco Port of Embarkation, a new command, was created on 6 May 1932 under Brigadier General Charles S. Lincoln with headquarters at Fort Mason assuming command over the Army Transport Service, the San Francisco General Quartermaster Depot at Fort Mason and the Overseas Replacement and Discharge Service at Fort McDowell, California.</p><br>
<p>With the rest of the world at war since 1939, the USA Army began updating and improving facilities across the country, without however an improved budget. On 1 October 1940 Army Engineer Col John C. H. Lee was promoted to brigadier general, and named Commanding General, Pacific Ports of Embarkation. He set up shop at Fort Mason, and spent exactly a year improving Army port facilities from Seattle to San Diego.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Fort Mason became the headquarters of the San Francisco Port of Embarkation, controlling a network of shipping facilities that spread across the Bay Area. Thirteen installations in the San Francisco area beyond Fort Mason were part of the San Francisco POE. Other facilities included the piers at Alameda, the Richmond Parr Terminals, an Air Force depot, the Emeryville Ordnance Shops, Hamilton Field for air shipments and the Presidio which included an animal depot. The Stockton Piers and the Humboldt Bay Piers were more distant elements of the port. The largest facility in the bay was what was to become the 624.5 acre Oakland Army Base at the terminus for the transcontinental railroads. Camp Stoneman was the principal troop staging area for and under the command of the San Francisco Port of Embarkation.</p><br>
<p>During the early months of the War, Lieutenant Ronald Reagan, US Cavalry Reserve, was assigned to a planning unit ("The Backroom Boys") commanded by Colonel Phillip T. Booker.</p><br>
<p>Over the years of the war, 1,647,174 passengers and 23,589,472 measured tons moved from the port into the Pacific. This total represents two-thirds of all troops sent into the Pacific and more than one-half of all Army cargo moved through West Coast ports. The highest passenger count was logged in August 1945 when 93,986 outbound passengers were loaded.</p><br>
<p>The Korean War in the 1950s also kept the post busy, and in 1955 the San Francisco Port of Embarkation was renamed the USA Army Transportation Terminal Command Pacific.</p><br>
<h4>Later Army transportation function</h4><br>
<p>The embarkation operations continued through the early sixties. In 1965 the headquarters of the US Army Transportation Terminal Command were transferred to the Oakland Army Terminal, and most of Fort Mason&#39;s embarkation facilities fell into disuse. The Army continues to use and maintain the old officer housing. The National Park Service took over the administration of the site in the 1970s as a part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. In 1976 lower Fort Mason became the Fort Mason Center, a non profit organization that provides a destination for programs, events and organizations that support and reflect the evolving cultural fabric of San Francisco and the Bay Area. (GGNRA).</p><br>
<h2>Current uses</h2><br>
<p>Some of the old officer housing remains in use by the Army, while some is rented to the public. One of the larger buildings has been converted into a youth hostel, operated by Hostelling International USA.</p><br>
<p>As a whole, the former post is now a mix of parks and gardens and late nineteenth and early twentieth century buildings that are still in use. A path follows the harbor edge, rising along the headland and offering views north past Alcatraz and west to the Golden Gate Bridge.</p><br>
<p>The lower portion of the site is known as the Fort Mason Center for Arts & Culture (FMCAC). FMCAC is a non-profit and their campus houses the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Artists Gallery, Blue Bear School of Music, City College of San Francisco Art Campus, The Interval, Greens Restaurant, Readers Bookstore, Magic Theatre, the Mexican Museum, Embark Gallery, Off the Grid, BATS Improv, San Francisco Childrens Art Center, Museo ItaloAmericano, Flax art & design, California Lawyers for the Arts and other organizations connected to arts and culture. The newest space is Gallery 308, whose inaugural exhibition was Janet CardiffsThe Forty Part Motet (November 14, 2015 – January 18, 2016), followed by Sophie Calles Missing (June 22, 2017 – August 20, 2017). From 2017 until its closure in 2022, the San Francisco Art Institute opened a graduate program campus, housed in FMCACs historic Herbst Pavilion.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service headquarters for both the Golden Gate National Recreation Area and the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park are located in Fort Mason.</p><br>
<p>Operations for the United States Park Police are located in the fort, providing police services for the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in San Francisco and Marin County.</p><br>
<h2>Future developments</h2><br>
<p>A proposal exists to extend the F Market & Wharves or E Embarcadero historic streetcar line to a terminal at Lower Fort Mason. This extension would run from the vicinity of the existing terminal near Fisherman&#39;s Wharf, westward alongside the San Francisco Maritime Museum and Aquatic Park, and then through the existing, now unused, San Francisco Belt Railroad tunnel under Upper Fort Mason.</p><br>
<p>A technical feasibility study, under the aegis of the National Park Service and San Francisco Municipal Railway, was completed in December 2004. An Environmental Impact Statement for the extension, involving the San Francisco Municipal Railway, National Park Service and Federal Transit Administration, commenced in May 2006. The Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS) was completed in March 2011, and was scheduled to be reviewed by December 2011.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>The Ohio State Reformatory , also known as the Mansfield Reformatory, is a historic prison located in Mansfield, Ohio in the United States. It was built between 1886 and 1910 and remained in operation until 1990, when a United States Federal Court ruling  ordered the facility to be closed. While this facility was seen in a number of films , TV shows and music videos, it was made famous by the film The Shawshank Redemption  when it was used for most scenes of the movie. The Ohio State Reformatory is currently open to tourists.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of the Ohio State Reformatory began in 1862: the field where the reformatory would be built was used as a training camp for Civil War soldiers. The camp was named Camp Mordecai Bartley in honor of the Mansfield man who served as Ohio Governor in the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>In 1867, Mansfield was promoted as a candidate for the placement of the new Intermediate Penitentiary (the original name before it was changed to Ohio State Reformatory). The city raised $10,000 to purchase 30 acres of land for the prison, and the state acquired 150 acres of adjoining land for $20,000; the cost of the facility was $1,326,769. The Intermediate (Ohio State Reformatory) was intended as just that, a halfway point between the Boys Industrial School in Lancaster, Ohio and the State Penitentiary in Columbus, Ohio which was intended to house young firsttime offenders. Construction began in 1886 and remained under construction until 1910 due to funding problems which caused construction delays.</p><br>
<p>The original architect for the design was Levi T. Scofield from Cleveland, Ohio, who used three architectural styles; Victorian Gothic, Richardsonian Romanesque and Queen Anne. The exterior of the building, which is built from brick and concrete, is designed in the Romanesque style giving the frontage a castlelike appearance. Scofield designed the reformatory with these unique styles to help encourage inmates to become reborn back into their spiritual lives. The creation and construction of the entire building was entrusted to wellknown architect F.F. Schnitzer, whose name also appears on the cornerstone, and is recorded as Superintendent and Supervising Architect on documents found there. In 1891 the name was changed from Intermediate Penitentiary to Ohio State Reformatory.</p><br>
<p>On September 15, 1896, the reformatory opened its doors to its first 150 offenders. These prisoners were brought by train from Columbus and put immediately to work on the prison sewer system and the 25foot stone wall surrounding the complex. Schnitzer was presented with a silver double inkwell by the governor of the state in a lavish ceremony to thank him for his services.</p><br>
<p>From 1935 until 1959 Arthur Lewis Glattke was the Superintendent. Initially a political appointment following Glattkes work on the Martin Davey campaign, by all accounts Glattke was respected by professionals and inmates alike. He implemented many reforms such as piped-in radio music in the cell blocks. Glattkes wife, Helen Bauer Glattke, died of pneumonia three days following an accident in November 1950 where a handgun discharged when she was reaching into a jewelry box in the family&#39;s quarters. Glattke died following a heart attack suffered in his office on February 10, 1959.</p><br>
<p>Over 200 people died at the OSR, including two guards who were killed during escape attempts.</p><br>
<h3>Closure</h3><br>
<p>The Reformatory remained in full operation until December 1990 when it was closed via federal court order. As the result of a prisoners&#39; class action suit citing overcrowding and inhumane conditions (Boyd v. Denton, C.A. 78-1054A (N.D.Oh.)), District Judge Frank J. Battisti of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio ordered the prison closed by the end of December 1986. This order was known as the Boyd Consent Decree. The closing date was moved to 1990 due to delays in constructing the replacement facility, the Mansfield Correctional Institution, which stands to the west of the old prison, where the yard, power plant, and other buildings once stood.</p><br>
<p>Most of the grounds and support buildings, including the outer wall, have been demolished since the closing. In 1995, the Mansfield Reformatory Preservation Society was formed. They have turned the prison into a museum and conduct tours to help fund grounds rehabilitation projects and currently work to stabilize the buildings against further deterioration.</p><br>
<p>The East Cell Block remains the largest freestanding steel cell block in the world at six tiers high.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration and tours</h2><br>
<p>The Mansfield Reformatory Preservation Society is currently working to restore the facility to its original state. Restorations to date include the removal of debris, replacement of roofing, complete restoration of the Warden&#39;s quarters, as well as the complete restoration of the central guard room between the East and West Cell Blocks.</p><br>
<p>The restorations are being funded through donations and tour fees. The windows of the south side east cell block have been replaced, and all of the original stained glass windows that were in the building are planned to be replaced. Throughout the Halloween season, the building hosts a haunted house through Blood Prison.</p><br>
<p>The Ohio State Reformatory offers multiple types of guided tours: History Meets Hollywood which summarizes the history and movie history, Beyond the Bars which focuses more on the history and access to areas off the tourroute, and the Old Sparky Electric Chair tour, which discusses the creation and use of Ohio&#39;s Electric Chair. Although the electric chair was never used at The Ohio State Reformatory, it now resides in the Ohio Corrections Museum at the Reformatory.</p><br>
<p>The Ohio State Reformatory offers ghost tours as well as the normal daytime tours. They offer public ghost hunts for casual ghost hunters, private ghost hunts for more experienced ghost hunters, ghost walks for children 13 years and up, ghost hunt classes for children 13 years and up, and special ghost hunt events hosted by famous ghost hunters, celebrities, or historians.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>The Shawshank Redemption 30th Anniversary Celebration (shawshank30.com) was hosted August 9-11, 2024.</p><br>
<p>The Ohio State Reformatory currently hosts several different events throughout the year, one of the most popular being the INKcarceration Music & Tattoo Festival, which is a 3-day rock band show in midJuly. A few of the other events include the Halloween Haunted Attraction "Blood Prison" which runs in September and October every year. The Shawshank Hustle a 7k running race that goes past 5 film locations of The Shawshank Redemption, ParaPsyCon (parapsycon.com), which is a weekend Paranormal and Psychic Convention held each May.</p><br>
<h2>Films and television</h2><br>
<p>The Ohio State Reformatory facility has been used as a location for many film and television productions, and is best known for its appearance as Shawshank State Prison in the 1994 film The Shawshank Redemption.</p><br>
<p>Harry and Walter Go to New York (1975) Harry and Walter spend some time behind bars at the penitentiary, when the prison was still in operation.</p><br>
<p>Tango & Cash (1989) The facility was used for various prison scenes, when the prison was still in operation.</p><br>
<p>The Shawshank Redemption (1994) The prison was used for a large panning scene and the wardens office; an officers quarters were used to shoot a sequence set in a civilian apartment.</p><br>
<p>Air Force One (1997) The prison was used for scenes of a Russian prison for General Ivan Radek.</p><br>
<p>Godsmack "Awake" music video, 2000.</p><br>
<p>Marilyn Manson photography, 1996 Frontman, Brian Hugh Warner, grew up in Canton, Ohio.</p><br>
<p>Ohio State Reformatory has been the subject of numerous paranormal investigation shows, including the Fox Family Channel&#39;s Scariest Stories on Earth, and Scariest Places On Earth.</p><br>
<p>The Travel Channel did a tourism documentary on the OSR.</p><br>
<p>The Travel Channel&#39;s television show Destination Fear filmed at the location for the fourth episode of their third season.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, The Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS) investigated the facility for the SciFi Channel&#39;s TV series Ghost Hunters.</p><br>
<p>In 2004 Lil Wayne featured this prison in his video for the song "Go DJ".</p><br>
<p>In April 2006 the horror/thriller motion picture Fallen Angels (2007) was filmed almost entirely at OSR.</p><br>
<p>WWE shot a promotional poster featuring Triple H for their 2008 Judgment Day event in the facility.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 the facility was featured on Ghost Adventures in Season 3 Episode 4.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, the facility was used for an episode of Ghost Hunters Academy.</p><br>
<p>It is the filming place for the music video of the song "Relentless Chaos" by Miss May I.</p><br>
<p>The Purple Smoke Project (Hip hop group) filmed a video for the song "Calm Down" in 2011.</p><br>
<p>Attack Attack! shot a portion of their video "Smokahontas" in 2011.</p><br>
<p>Anti-Flag shot the majority of their video for "The New Sound" in the prison.</p><br>
<p>The National Geographic Channel featured the prison on the show Inside: Secret America S1/Ep 05 for the episode "Ghosts" in 2013.</p><br>
<p>Ghost Asylum on Destination America in 2015.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 the reformatory was investigated and featured on The Hambone Show.</p><br>
<p>David Allen Coe and The Moonshine Bandits (2017) recorded a music video for "Take This Job and Shove It".</p><br>
<p>In 2017, nu-metal act Motograter filmed a video for the song "Dorian".</p><br>
<p>On May 11, 2018, the facility was featured on an episode of BuzzFeed Unsolved.</p><br>
<p>On December 4, 2018, the facility was featured on Discovery Channel show Mysteries of the Abandoned, Season 3, Episode 10.</p><br>
<p>In fall 2018, Escape Plan: The Extractors with Sylvester Stallone was filmed at the facility.</p><br>
<p>In April 2019, the facility was used to film country music artist Eric Church&#39;s "Some of It" music video.</p><br>
<p>In May 2019, American YouTuber MrBeast did a 24-hour challenge video in the prison with the title, “24 Hours in The Most Haunted Place on Earth”.</p><br>
<p>On November 25 and 26, 2019, filming for Judas and the Black Messiah took place at the Reformatory.</p><br>
<p>In February 2020, Chris Jericho had an episode of his podcast, Talk is Jericho, about the prison and the fact that it is supposedly haunted.</p><br>
<p>In November or December 2021 YouTubers Sam Golbach & Colby Brock did a paranormal investigation for their YouTube series The Attachment.</p><br>
<p>Between May and June of 2022, Shelby Oaks filmed scenes at this location.</p><br>
<p>Bullocks Wilshire, located at 3050 Wilshire Boulevard in Los Angeles, California, is a 230,000 ft&sup2; Art Deco building. The building opened in September 1929 as a luxury department store for owner John G. Bullock . Bullocks Wilshire was also the name of the department store chain of which the Los Angeles store was the flagship; it had seven stores total; Macys incorporated them into and rebranded them as I. Magnin in 1989, before closing I. Magnin entirely in 1994. The building is currently owned by Southwestern Law School.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Design</h3><br>
<p>The building was designed by Los Angeles architects John and Donald Parkinson; the interior design was by Eleanor Lemaire and Jock Peters of the Feil & Paradise Company; the ceiling mural of the porte-cochère was painted by Herman Sachs.</p><br>
<h4>Exterior</h4><br>
<p>The exterior is notable for its 241 ft tower whose top is sheathed in copper, tarnished green. At one time, the tower peak had a light that could be seen for miles around. The stylized relief, above the Wilshire Boulevard entrance, was designed by George Stanley, designer of the Oscar. Among the workers laboring on the project may have been Sam Rodia, builder of the Watts Towers.</p><br>
<p>Bullocks Wilshires innovation was that it was one of the first department stores in Los Angeles to cater to the burgeoning automobile culture. It was located in a then-mostly residential district, its objective to attract shoppers who wanted a closer place to shop than Downtown Los Angeles. Traditional display windows faced the sidewalk, but they were decorated to catch the eyes of motorists. Since most customers would arrive by vehicle, the most appealing entrance was placed in the rear. Under the citys first department store porte cochere, valets in livery welcomed patrons and parked their cars.</p><br>
<h4>Interior</h4><br>
<p>Shoppers entered the foyer which had travertine floors and elevators finished in nickel, brass, and gunmetal.</p><br>
<p>On the first floor was the vaulted Perfume Hall, awash in natural light muted by walls of St. Genevieve marble. The womens shoe salon was paneled with the wood from a single Central American tree. Cork in exotic shades lined the walls in the furs atelier. The Saddle Shop featured vermillion floor tiles, wall cases of deep red oak, and a life-size plaster likeness of a horse, Bullocks Barney.</p><br>
<p>For refreshment, there was a top-floor desert-themed tearoom and the adjoining lounge where society women gathered for luncheon fashion shows. Truly elite service was reserved for the selected men invited to shop in the privacy of J.G. Bullocks wood-paneled private suite on the fifth floor. Titans of business and politics relaxed over cocktails and hors doeuvres as sales associates modeled potential gifts.</p><br>
<h3>Clientele and notable employees</h3><br>
<p>The department store served the upper crust of Los Angeles society. In its heyday, Bullocks Wilshire patrons included celebrities Mae West, John Wayne, Marlene Dietrich, Joan Crawford, Alfred Hitchcock, Greta Garbo, ZaSu Pitts, Walt Disney, and Clark Gable. While struggling to become an actress, a teen-aged Angela Lansbury worked as a sales clerk. Future First Lady Patricia Nixon also served a stint on the floor. From his studio, next to the Chanel department, Neil Gittings photographed many celebrities who frequented Bullocks Wilshire.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, this sub-division of Bullocks dropped its apostrophe and began opening separate branch locations so as to separate its decidedly luxury identity from its larger yet more upper-moderate/better parent. Branches were located in Palm Springs (1947), Woodland Hills (The Promenade) (1973; 80,000 square feet), Newport Beach (Fashion Island) (1977; 80,000 square feet), La Jolla (1979), Palos Verdes (1981), and Palm Desert (formerly Bonwit Teller; 1987; 50,000 square feet). The branches of Woodland Hills and Newport Beach were designed by the Los Angeles firm of Welton Becket and Associates. Over the years, a shift by other luxury stores and boutiques to the west side of the city/county resulted in the primary Bullocks Wilshire trading areas fall, yet the main store held on as a destination until 1988, when it began its own precipitous decline, hastened under operation by its final owners, Macys, who had acquired the chain from the Campeau Corporation. The Wilshire Boulevard store suffered severe damage during the Los Angeles riots of 1992; looters broke in and shattered every display case on the first floor. The upper floors were not damaged because fleeing staffers shut off the elevators; the original decision to build the store without escalators may have actually saved the landmark from ruin. At least three fires were set by arsonists, but they did not spread. Bullocks Wilshire finally closed in 1993 with legal battles ensuing as Macys stripped the store of its historic artifacts, furnishings and fixtures for other locations (bowing to pressure, almost all the 1929 fixtures were returned). Its locations had been converted around 1990 to I. Magnin, a San Francisco-based luxury chain which in turn was shuttered by Federated Department Stores in January 1995 upon its acquisition of Macy&#39;s.</p><br>
<h3>Current use of building</h3><br>
<p>In 1994, the building was acquired by Southwestern Law School, its long-time neighbor. The school restored the building to its original 1929 state, adapting the building for use as an integral part of the school. The building is a historic-cultural monument of the City of Los Angeles, and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places May 25, 1978.</p><br>
<p>The Southwestern Law School Office of Administrative Services is responsible for all arrangements pertaining to commercial photography and filming on Southwestern&#39;s campus and works with.</p><br>
<h2>Bullocks Wilshire chain</h2><br>
<p>Bullocks Wilshire was one of the more important divisions of Bullocks, Inc. until it was consolidated into I. Magnin by Macys in 1989. The division could be traced to the opening of a single luxury branch store of Bullocks in 1929. In 1968, The Bullocks store in Palm Springs (built in 1947) was transferred to the control of Bullocks Wilshire to be its first branch store. Four years later, in 1972, Bullocks Wilshire store was separated from Bullocks as a separate division with its own, president, chairman, buyers and staff with Walter Bergquist, former president of Bullocks, assigned as the division&#39;s first president.</p><br>
<h3>Bullocks Wilshire locations</h3><br>
<p>Source: Bullock&#39;s Department Store by Devin T. Frick</p><br>
<p>Wilshire (freestanding), opened September 24, 1929 – now occupied by Southwestern Law School</p><br>
<p>Palm Springs (freestanding), opened October 18, 1947</p><br>
<p>Woodland Hills Promenade, opened August 20, 1973</p><br>
<p>Newport Beach (Fashion Island), opened August 1, 1977 – razed, now site of Nordstrom</p><br>
<p>La Jolla Village Square, San Diego, opened August 20, 1979</p><br>
<p>Palos Verdes (Rolling Hills Estates), (The Courtyard, now Promenade on the Peninsula), opened September 28, 1981 – now individual retail stores and cinema</p><br>
<p>Palm Desert Town Center, opened February 7, 1987</p><br>
<p>Bullocks Lakewood Center- razed- Now a Home Depot</p><br>
<h2>Appearances in media</h2><br>
<p>Visiting... with Huell Howser Episode 810</p><br>
<p>Love in an Elevator music video by Aerosmith</p><br>
<p>Quality Hill is a historic neighborhood near downtown Kansas City, Missouri, USA, on a 200-foot-high bluff which overlooks the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers in the West Bottoms below.</p><br>
<p>Located on the west side of downtown, it is bounded by Broadway to the east, I-35 to the west, 7th Street to the north, and 14th Street to the south. The Kansas border is half a mile away through the West Bottoms. Since 1978, Quality Hill has been listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. It includes residences, large businesses (including the headquarters of Kansas City Southern Industries and DST Systems and a large branch of the State Street Corporation), retail establishments, entertainment venues, two cathedrals, and private clubs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Situated within fourteen blocks of the Missouri River, Quality Hill is the oldest established residential area in the Kansas City metropolitan area to remain continuously inhabited.</p><br>
<h3>French origins</h3><br>
<p>The Chouteau Society, a society dedicated to highlighting Kansas Citys French origins, erected a signpost at the northwest corner of 11th and Washington streets, in French and English, which states the corner was the site of an early-18th-century French missionary church, the oldest structure known to have been built by Europeans in the region. This would have been during the era of French fur trappers who traveled the regions rivers. The first recorded church on the site was built in 1822 at the behest of François Chouteau, who is credited as the founder and first Euro-American permanent settler of Kansas City.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kansas City-St. Joseph, is on the site of Chouteau&#39;s church. Known for its gold-covered dome, the cathedral is the oldest standing building on Quality Hill. Two blocks down Washington Street is Grace and Holy Trinity Cathedral, which was built beginning in the 1860s, and serves as the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of West Missouri. Several buildings on Quality Hill date to before the Civil War.</p><br>
<h3>Lewis and Clark Expedition</h3><br>
<p>On September 15, 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition stopped on what is now known as Quality Hill, on its return from the Pacific Ocean. Meriwether Lewis noted in his journal that the site offered a "commanding situation for a fort." Today, the site is commemorated by a large bronze sculpture including a figure of the enslaved man York, the only monument in Missouri to include a slave. Informational signposts and a lookout point are at the north end of Case Park, located at 8th Street and Jefferson Street. The sculpture was made by Eugene Daub.</p><br>
<h3>Quality Hill&#39;s heyday</h3><br>
<p>Between its formal inception as a neighborhood by Kersey Coates in 1857 and a short time after the end of World War I, Quality Hill was the most fashionable and expensive neighborhood in Kansas City. Many of the citys leaders of power and industry lived high on Quality Hills limestone bluffs in large houses overlooking the West Bottoms below, which contained the city&#39;s industrial heart, rail center, and famous stockyards. From Quality Hill they had ready access to their businesses and to the ports of commerce.</p><br>
<p>One figure who greatly influenced Quality Hills rise was Tom Pendergast, a notorious political boss in the city. In the early 20th century, his brother, Jim Pendergast, a saloon owner in the West Bottoms, began a Democratic Party political machine which soon achieved nearly total power over politics in the region. His chief rival was Joe Shannon. Shannons faction was nicknamed "the rabbits" because of their connection to the old ways of doing things in lowlands along the rivers (one of the early nicknames for Kansas City was "Rabbitville"), while the Pendergast faction was nicknamed "the goats" because of their desire to climb out of the Bottoms. Tom Pendergast succeeded his brother as boss of the machine.</p><br>
<p>In 1941, Pendergast arranged for President Franklin D. Roosevelts Works Progress Administration to build a large park on Quality Hill overlooking the Kansas City Downtown Airport, which also was built during his reign. This park is known as Case Park today, occupying the entire edge of Quality Hills bluffs. Tom Pendergast commissioned a statue of his brother Jim to be placed in the park, and it still stands. Until the completion of Kansas City International Airport in 1972, Case Park was a popular spot to watch planes take off from the Downtown Airport. One consideration in the decision to build the new airport was the difficulty planes encountered taking off from the Downtown airport, as they had to climb steeply to avoid the 200-foot bluffs and Quality Hill&#39;s buildings. The Kansas City Riverfront Bicycle Trail, a 20-mile bicycle route along the Missouri River around downtown Kansas City, also runs through the park and along the bluff.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, the American Hereford Association placed a fiberglass statue of a bull on a 90-foot pylon at its headquarters at 715 Kirk Drive, with President Dwight D. Eisenhower presiding. The bull was nicknamed "Bob" by locals, a name derived from the acronym created by the phrase "bull on building." It either was loved as an icon or reviled as kitsch detracting from the citys beauty. The statues sculptor was Will Decker with Rochetti and Parzini of New York City, and it was manufactured at the Colonial Plastic Corporation of Newark, New Jersey.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and redevelopment</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in the 1960s, Downtown Kansas Citys population began a steep decline. The citys center of population moved south to the suburbs. Elite who used to live on Quality Hill gradually moved to upscale areas farther south, such as the Country Club Plaza and Sunset Hill. As a result, houses were divided into multiple families, income levels of residents went down, and Quality Hill gradually fell into extreme disrepair.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, Arnold Garfinkel, a real estate developer, began acquiring and assembling properties and by 1976, he controlled several large parcels. Garfinkle created a report promoting the investment possibilities on Quality Hill. He envisioned a combination of new development and historic renovation. Garfinkel did not implement his ambitious plan, but it served as a catalyst for other investors, who began renovations on several loft buildings. These new developments encouraged the Kansas City LCRA, in 1983, to revise the downtown central business district plan to include the revitalization of the Quality Hill area. That same year, LCRA selected McCormack Baron Salazar, a development company from St. Louis with strong historic preservation experience, to serve as master developer for the effort. The City, in partnership with the neighborhood and a consortium of the Hall Family Foundation, DST Systems, J.E. Dunn and others, acquired nearly all of Quality Hill from Garfinkle and others. McCormack Baron Salazar, as developer, built many new structures, both residential and commercial, and refurbished old ones.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, the architecture firm HNTB bought the American Hereford building for its world headquarters and removed the bull statue from the building. In 2002, HNTB and other firms arranged to have the bull moved across I-35 to Mulkey Square.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, Kansas City Southern Industries completed a multimillion-dollar new headquarters between the two cathedrals and designed after Quality Hill&#39;s distinctive architectural style. Around that time, State Street purchased Quality Hill property from DST Systems and opened a major branch. The Heart of America United Way (the Kansas City Metropolitan Area branch of the United Way) also maintains its headquarters in the heart of Quality Hill, in the former Virginia Hotel and in a 19th-century house along Pennsylvania street. Previously it was also located in a 19th-century house on the corner of Washington Street and 11th Street. In 2016, that location was converted into Quality Hill Academy, a local charter school for grades K-3.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Since the late 20th century, Quality Hill has regained its attraction as a highly upscale urban neighborhood. According to Tony Salazar, it is widely regarded as one of the best successes in urban renewal in the United States. Quality Hills appeal to potential residents is based both in its historic beauty and its ready access to the cultural and business life of downtown Kansas City. Its architecture – both historic and new, reflects Kansas Citys origins. It is mostly of a 19th-century French and Federal style, similar to St. Louis&#39;s historic Soulard neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>In February 2008, McCormack Baron Salazar, who owned and managed its large property as a development called New Quality Hill, sold 21 buildings (consisting of 382 residential units_ to C.R.E.S. Management LLC, a Kansas City-based development company. Its plans were for a major restoration of all the buildings and area landscape. Many other properties are privately owned, including residences and businesses. Quality Hill contains undeveloped land, most of which is owned by DST Systems and the Kauffman Foundation. This property includes several large, often-unused parking lots and many vacant house lots.</p><br>
<p>The Kauffman Foundation has continued refurbishing its remaining historic buildings for lease. Recently some residents voiced concerns that the New Quality Hill portion of the neighborhood is declining. McCormack Baron Salazar initially said it was working to address those concerns, but in November 2006 decided to sell the bulk of its property on Quality Hill.</p><br>
<p>As redevelopment of Downtown Kansas City burgeons, and with the population having swelled from 3,000 in 2002 to over 16,000 in 2006, Quality Hill&#39;s population continues to grow rapidly (and the cost of living there continues to increase).</p><br>
<p>The Quality Hill Playhouse features many Broadway and off-Broadway shows.</p><br>
<p>The River Club, one of two private city clubs on the Missouri side of Kansas City (along with the Kansas City Club in the nearby Library District), is on Quality Hill, on 8th Street between Jefferson Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, near the Lewis and Clark historic site.</p><br>
<p>The Monadnock Building  is a 16-story skyscraper located at 53 West Jackson Boulevard in the south Loop area of Chicago. The north half of the building was designed by the firm of Burnham & Root and built starting in 1891. At 215 feet , it is the tallest load-bearing brick building ever constructed. It employed the first portal system of wind bracing in the United States. Its decorative staircases represent the first structural use of aluminum in building construction. The later south half, constructed in 1893, was designed by Holabird & Roche and is similar in color and profile to the original, but the design is more traditionally ornate. When completed, it was the largest office building in the world. The success of the building was the catalyst for an important new business center at the southern end of the Loop.</p><br>
<p>The building was remodeled in 1938 in one of the first major skyscraper renovations ever undertaken—a bid, in part, to revolutionize how building maintenance was done and halt the demolition of Chicago&#39;s aging skyscrapers. It was sold in 1979 to owners who restored the building to its original condition, in one of the most comprehensive skyscraper restorations attempted as of 1992. The project was recognized as one of the top restoration projects in the US by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1987. The building is divided into offices from 250 ft&sup2; to 6,000 ft&sup2; in size, and primarily serves independent professional firms. It was listed for sale in 2007.</p><br>
<p>The north half is an unornamented vertical mass of purple-brown brick, flaring gently out at the base and top, with vertically continuous oriel windows projecting out. The south half is vertically divided by brickwork at the base and rises to a large copper cornice at the roof. Projecting oriel windows in both halves allow large exposures of glass, giving the building an open appearance despite its mass. The Monadnock is part of the Printing House Row District, which also includes the Fisher Building, the Manhattan Building, and the Old Colony Building.</p><br>
<p>When it was built, many critics called the building too extreme, and lacking in style. Others found in its lack of ornamentation the natural extension of its commercial purpose and an expression of modern business life. Early 20th-century European architects found inspiration in its attention to purpose and functional expression. It was one of the first buildings named a Chicago Architectural Landmark in 1958. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, and named as part of the National Historic Landmark South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row North Historic District in 1976. Modern critics have called it a "classic", a "triumph of unified design", and "one of the most exciting aesthetic experiences America&#39;s commercial architecture produced".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>North half (1881–1891)</h3><br>
<p>The Monadnock was commissioned by Boston real estate developers Peter and Shepherd Brooks in the building boom following the Depression of 1873–79. The Brooks family, which had amassed a fortune in the shipping insurance business and had been investing in Chicago real estate since 1863, had retained Chicago property manager Owen F. Aldis to manage the construction of the seven-story Grannis Block on Dearborn Street in 1880. It was Aldis, one of two men Louis Sullivan credited with being "responsible for the modern office building", who convinced investors such as the Brooks brothers to build new skyscrapers in Chicago. By the end of the century, Aldis would create over 1,000,000 ft&sup2; of new office space and manage nearly one fifth of the office space in the Loop.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Burnham and John Wellborn Root met as young draftsmen in the Chicago firm of Carter, Drake, and Wight in 1872 and left to form Burnham & Root the following year. At Aldis&#39;s urging, the Brooks brothers had retained the then-fledgling firm to design the Grannis Block, which was their first major commission. Burnham and Root would become the architects of choice for the Brooks family, for whom they would complete the first high-rise building in Chicago, the 10-story Montauk Building, in 1883, and the 11-story Rookery Building in 1888.</p><br>
<p>The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 had destroyed a 4x0.5 mi swath of the city between the Chicago River and Lake Michigan, and subsequent commercial development expanded into the area far south of the main business district along the river that would come to be known as "the Loop". Between 1881 and 1885, Aldis bought a series of lots in the area on Peter Brooks behalf, including a 70-by-200-foot (21 by 61 m) site on the corner of Jackson and Dearborn streets. The location was remote, yet attractive for several reasons. The construction of the Chicago Board of Trade Building in 1885 had made nearby LaSalle Street the citys prime financial district, driving up property values, and railroad companies were buying up land further south for new terminal buildings, creating further speculation in the southeastern end of the Loop. Brooks commissioned Burnham & Root to design a building for the site in 1884, and the project was announced in 1885, with a brief trade journal notice that the building would cost $850,000 ($ in dollars). The Chicago building community had little faith in Brooks&#39; choice of location. Architect Edwin Renwick would say:</p><br>
<p>Early sketches show a 13-story building with Egyptian Revival ornament and a slight flaring at the top, divided visually into five sections with a lotus-blossom decorative motif. This design was never approved, as Brooks waited for the real estate market in the south Loop, still mostly warehouses, to improve. Where Root was known for the detailed ornamentation of his designs (as seen in the Rookery Building), Brooks was known for his stinginess and preference for simplicity. For the Monadnock, Brooks insisted that the architects refrain from elaborate ornamentation and produce instead "the effect of solidity and strength, or a design that will produce that effect, rather than ornament for a notable appearance." In an 1884 letter to Aldis, he wrote:</p><br>
<p>While Root was on vacation, Burnham had a draftsman create a "straight up-and-down, uncompromising, unornamented facade." Objecting at first, Root later threw himself into the design, declaring that the heavy lines of an Egyptian pyramid had captured his imagination and that he would "throw the thing up without a single ornament".</p><br>
<p>In 1889, a new plan was announced for the building: a thick-walled brick tower, 16 stories high, devoid of ornamentation and suggestive of an Egyptian pylon. Brooks insisted that the building have no projections, for which reason the plan did not include oriel windows, but Aldis argued that more rentable space would be created by projecting oriel windows, which were included in the final design. The Monadnock&#39;s final height was calculated to be the highest economically viable for a load-bearing wall design, requiring walls 6 ft thick at the bottom and 18 in thick at the top. Greater height would have required walls of such thickness that they would have reduced the rentable space too greatly. The final height was much dithered over by the owners, but a decision was forced when the city proposed an ordinance restricting the height of buildings to 150 ft. To protect future income potential, Aldis sought a permit for a 16-story building immediately. The building commissioner, although "staggered by the sixteen story plan", granted the permit on June 3, 1889.</p><br>
<p>With its 17 stories (16 rentable plus an attic), its 215 ft load-bearing walls were the tallest of any commercial structure in the world. To support the towering structure and reinforce against wind, the masonry walls were braced with an interior frame of cast and wrought iron. Root devised for this frame the first attempt at a portal system of wind bracing in America, in which iron struts were riveted between the columns of the frame for reinforcement. The narrow lot allowed only a single, double-loaded corridor, which was appointed with a 3 ft wainscot of white Carrara marble, red oak trim, and feather-chipped glass that allowed outside light to filter from the offices on each side into the hallways. Floors were covered with hand-carved marble mosaic tiles. Skylit open staircases were made of bronze-plated cast iron on upper floors. On the ground floor, they were crafted in cast aluminum—an exotic and expensive material at the time—representing the first use of aluminum in building construction.</p><br>
<p>The building was constructed by the firm of George A. Fuller, who trained as an architect but made his mark as the creator of the modern contracting system in building construction. His firm had supervised construction of the Rookery, and later built New York&#39;s Flatiron Building with Burnham in 1902. The Monadnock Block was built as a single structure but was legally two buildings, the Monadnock and the Kearsarge, named for Mount Monadnock and Mount Kearsarge in New Hampshire. Work was completed in 1891. The Monadnock, which Root called his "Jumbo", was his last project; he died suddenly while it was under construction.</p><br>
<h3>South half and early history (1891–1893)</h3><br>
<p>Encouraged by the early success of the building, Shepherd Brooks purchased the 68-by-200-foot (21 by 61 m) lot adjoining to the south in 1893 for $360,000 ($ in dollars). Aldis recommended the firm of Holabird & Roche, who had designed the Pontiac Building for Peter Brooks in 1891, to extend the Monadnock south to Van Buren. William Holabird and Martin Roche had trained together in the office of William LeBaron Jenney, and in 1881 formed their own firm, which would become one of the most prolific in the city and the acknowledged leader of the Chicago school of architecture. The north half had struggled with cost overruns and Holabird & Roche presented a more cost-effective design. The design, for two buildings called the Katahdin and Wachusett (also named for New England mountains), connected them to the north half as a single structure at an estimated cost of $800,000 ($ in dollars). Construction began in 1892, under the supervision of Corydon T. Purdy who would later earn accolades as the structural engineer for many famous Chicago and New York skyscrapers.</p><br>
<p>The addition, 17 stories high, preserved the color and vertically massed profile of the original, but was more traditionally ornate in its design, with grander entranceways and more neoclassical touches. The building reflected in its design the transition taking place in skyscraper design from load-bearing walls to steel frame construction. The Katahdin, built first, used the same iron framed masonry construction as the original. The Wachusett was entirely steel framed. Where the north half required great thicknesses of brick in the load-bearing walls, the addition employed only a thin facing of brick and terracotta trim, affording larger expanses of glass and faster, less expensive construction. The south half cost 15 percent less, weighed 15 percent less, and had 15 percent more rentable space than the north half. Connected on every floor except the top one and sharing a common basement, each of the four component buildings was equipped with its own heating system, elevators, stairs, and plumbing to facilitate a separate sale if required. The combined final cost in 1893 was $2.5 million ($ in dollars).</p><br>
<p>When complete, the Monadnock was the largest office building in the world, with 1,200 rooms and an occupancy of over 6,000. The Chicago Daily Tribune commented that the population of most Illinois towns in 1896 would fit comfortably in the building. It was a postal district unto itself, with four full-time carriers delivering mail six times a day, six days a week. It was the first building in Chicago wired for electricity, and one of the first to be fire-proofed, with hollow fire clay tiles lining the structure so that the metal frame would be protected even if the facing brick were to be destroyed.</p><br>
<p>The Brooks decision to construct a building of such scale and in such an unlikely location was vindicated by the Monadnocks success—it was the most profitable investment they ever made. The Economist, a Chicago real estate journal, conceded in 1892 that:</p><br>
<p>Early tenants, according to Rand McNally, included "great corporations, banks, and professional men... among them the Santa Fe, the Michigan Central, and the Chicago & Alton Railroads, and the American Exchange National and Globe Savings Banks".</p><br>
<p>In 1897, the Union Elevated Railroad Company opened the Union Loop line of the Chicago "L", the last leg of which ran immediately alongside the Van Buren side of the building. Aldis filed suit against the "L" in 1901 for $300,000 in damages ($ in dollars), complaining that:</p><br>
<p>Aldis lost the case, but won on appeal, when the Supreme Court of Illinois found that owners of property abutting the "L" lines could recover damages if the property had been injured by noise, vibration, or the blocking of light, paving the way for many lawsuits to follow.</p><br>
<h3>Modernization (1938–1979)</h3><br>
<p>A boom in new construction after 1926 created stiff competition for older buildings like the Monadnock. Occupancy declined from 87 percent in 1929 to 55 percent in 1937 and the building began to lose money. In 1938, building manager Graham Aldis (Owens nephew) announced what the Chicago Daily Tribune called "the citys largest and most novel modernization job" in a move toward halting the destruction of Chicago&#39;s aging skyscrapers. Rejecting the term "modernization", Aldis called his plan "progressive styling", which he believed would revolutionize the way building maintenance was done to preserve millions of dollars worth of buildings that would otherwise be destroyed. "There is no reason why", he said, "any well-designed office building need be torn down because of obsolescence." Skidmore & Owings, who had pioneered functional design, were retained to lead a $125,000 program ($ in dollars) to restyle the main entrance, remodel the lobby and ground floor shops, modernize all the public spaces, and progressively modernize office suites as demand required. The modernization included covering the mosaic floors with rubber tile and terrazzo, enclosing the elevators and ornamental stairways, and replacing the marble and oak finishes in the corridors and offices with modern materials. By the end of 1938, 35 new tenants had signed leases and 11 existing tenants had leased additional space in the building.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, Aldis & Co., which had managed the building for the Brooks estate for 75 years, was dissolved and the Monadnock was sold for $2 million ($ in dollars) to Sudler & Co., owners of the John Hancock Center, the Rookery Building, and the Old Colony Building. The new owners again modernized the interior, installing carpet, fluorescent lights, and new doors, and undertook a major effort to shore up the north wall which had sunk 1.75 in during construction of the Kluczynski Federal Building across Jackson Street in 1974.</p><br>
<p>By 1977, operating expenses were high, rents were low, and occupancy had fallen to 80 percent. Struggling to make loan payments, the owners were forced to sell the building to avoid foreclosure. It was purchased by a partnership headed by William S. Donnell in 1979 for $5 per square foot ($54 per square meter) or approximately $2 million ($ in dollars).</p><br>
<h3>Restoration and later (1979–present)</h3><br>
<p>The building Donnell purchased in 1979 had declined badly. The Dearborn entrances had been closed in, the ground floor had been "defaced by garish signs", and the brick had been painted and was peeling. Inside, the marble wainscoting had been painted over and many of the original oak doors had been replaced with cheaper mahogany. The decorative stair rails had been enclosed, and some stairways and corridors had been closed off completely. Much of the original mosaic tile had been demolished—some floors were carpeted, others tiled in vinyl or terrazzo. Half of the sixteen elevators were still manually operated. "It was as if it had been partly updated every ten years throughout its history", said Donnell, "it was never done over in its entirety."</p><br>
<p>Donnell, who had studied architecture at Harvard, planned to gut the building and construct a new, modern office complex inside the historic shell. Failing to obtain financing for the remodeling, he embarked instead on an incremental, "pay as you go" project to restore the Monadnock to its original condition in painstaking detail. The project was, according to historian Donald Miller, the most comprehensive skyscraper restoration ever attempted at the time; it took thirteen years to complete. Working from original drawings discovered at the Art Institute of Chicago, and two old photographs, Donnell and John Vinci, one of the nation&#39;s leading preservation architects, restored the building to its condition when first constructed, before any modernizations, working piecemeal as offices became vacant.</p><br>
<p>The color of the shellac was matched to closets where the wood had not been darkened by exposure to light. The mosaic floors were recreated by Italian craftsmen at a cost of $50 per square foot ($538 per square meter). A local firm was found that could reproduce the complicated process of sandblasting and hide glue application used to create the original feather chipped glass. This reproduced glass was used to restore the partitions and naturally lit corridors of Roots design. To recreate the doors and wood trim, Donnell purchased the firm that had created the original oak woodwork—and still used the same 19th century machinery. Perfect replicas of the original aluminum light fixtures were fabricated from early photographs and carbon filament light bulbs were obtained to recreate the original lighting effect. A single surviving aluminum staircase was discovered behind a wall, restored, and used as a model to rebuild the lobby stairways and metalwork. The wainscoting on the upper floors was restored with marble salvaged from the recently modernized, nearby 19 LaSalle and Manhattan Buildings. Marble was purchased from the same Italian quarry that supplied Roots original construction to restore the lobby walls and ceilings.</p><br>
<p>The Dearborn Street entrances were reopened and their massive granite lintels and surrounds cleared of layers of black paint or replaced. A source was found for the molded bricks needed to repair or replace the curved corners. Large plate glass windows at the entrance were removed and smaller double-hung windows were replaced that conformed to the original design. Fiberglass shades resembling the original linen versions were installed to preserve the appearance of the facade. The average cost of the restoration work was $1 million per floor ($ in dollars) in 1989, or $47 per square foot ($506 per square meter).</p><br>
<p>Donnells goal was that the Monadnock would "not only look as it originally did, it also live as it used to", and he sought tenants for the street-level shops that were similar to their 19th-century occupants. Shop windows were cleared of all signs and obstructions to preserve intended view from the corridor through to the street. Fluorescent lighting was prohibited and only gold leaf lettering on the glass was permitted for signage. Shops, all individually owned, were selected to fit the architectural character of the building. A florist, for example, was chosen that evoked a turn-of-the-century atmosphere, as well as a barbershop with vintage fixtures and decor. A tobacconist with oak furnishings, a pen shop with glass cases, a shoe-shine stand, and other service establishments represented, in Donnells words, "the kind of small-scale entrepreneurs who occupied those spaces at the turn of the century, the kind of people who bring vitality and life to a building because they have a stake in it."</p><br>
<p>The restoration was a success both critically and commercially. The building was 80 percent occupied when bought in 1979 and rented for $5.50 per square foot ($59.20 per square meter). By 1982, it was 91 percent occupied and commanded rent of $9 per square foot ($97 per square meter). The Monadnock was selected as one of top restoration projects in the country by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1987, noting "the outstanding quality of the overall restoration effort", and the precision, detail and faithfulness of the interior restoration, in particular the lobby, which "serves as a model for preservation nationwide."</p><br>
<p>The restored Monadnock is divided into offices of from 250 ft&sup2; to 6,000 ft&sup2, it was 98.9 percent leased; the 300 tenants are primarily independent professional firms and entrepreneurs. Rents range from $21 to $23 per square foot ($226 to $247 per square meter), plus electricity.</p><br>
<p>The building was offered for sale in 2007, with an expected price of $45 to $60 million. A tentative deal was reached at a price of $48 million in 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The south half preserves the lines and color of the older building, but is vertically divided by a string course over the second story, emphasizing the building&#39;s base, and a large ornamental copper cornice at the roof line. Massive blocks of red granite, 6 ft thick, frame the large, two-story entrances. The projecting oriel windows of the original are repeated, but alternate in a pattern of two four-window bays to one recessed strip of windows to create the undulating appearance of the facade that was an early trademark of Holabird & Roche. Carl Condit, historian of the Chicago school, has commented that:</p><br>
<p>The Monadnock rests on the floating foundation system invented by Root for the Montauk Building that revolutionized the way tall buildings were built on Chicago&#39;s spongy soil. A 2 ft layer of concrete, reinforced with steel beams, forms a spread footing extending out 11 ft under the surrounding streets, spreading the weight of the building over a large area of earth. The building was designed to settle 8 in, but by 1905 had settled that much and "several inches more", necessitating reconstruction of the first floor. By 1948, it had settled 20 in, resulting in a step down from the street to the ground floor. The entire east wall is supported on caissons sunk to the hardpan, installed when the subway Blue Line was dug under Dearborn Street in 1940.</p><br>
<p>The narrow building allows an external exposure to all of the 300 offices, which pass natural light via double hung outside windows through feather-chipped glass transoms and hallway partitions into the single central corridor. Skylights bring sunlight into the open stairwells. The north half corridors are 20 ft wide and the south half corridors are 11 ft. In the north half, there are two open stairs in the center at the one third points, with perforated risers, white marble treads, and decorative steel railings. There are two banks of four elevators on the west side of the corridor, one for passengers and the other for freight. In the south half, there is a single bank of elevators on the north half of the length. The southern bank was abandoned and slabbed over on each floor. There is a flight of stairs behind each of these shafts with marble treads, closed cast iron risers, and ornamental balusters. The basic office suite is 600 ft&sup2, consisting of one outer office and two or more inner offices. Heavy internal walls at the quarter and halfway points, the arches of which manifest Root&#39;s innovative wind bracing, mark the boundaries of the four original buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding area</h2><br>
<p>The Monadnock belongs to the Printing House Row District, a National Historic Landmark which includes the Manhattan Building, the Old Colony Building, and the Fisher Building, some of Chicagos seminal early skyscrapers. The Manhattan Building, built by William LeBaron Jenney in 1890, was the first building in Chicago with a complete steel skeleton or "Chicago" construction, an innovation Jenney had introduced in the Home Insurance Building in 1884. The first 16-story building in America, at the time it was "regarded with awe and fear". Jenneys masterpiece, the Manhattan was considered a technical triumph in construction. The 17-story Old Colony, built by Holabird & Roche in 1894, was considered one of the structural masterpieces of its time for its revolutionary portal form of bracing. It is the only survivor of a group of Chicago school buildings with rounded corner bays. The Fisher Building, built by Burnham in 1894, was an engineering miracle—the first tall commercial building to be built almost entirely without bricks. Its steel frame and thin terracotta curtain wall allowed two-thirds of the surface to be covered with glass.</p><br>
<p>The district overlaps geographically with the Printers Row neighborhood, originally the center of Chicagos printing and publishing industry, and now mostly converted to residential housing. The area is also home to the largest public library in the world, the Harold Washington Library, named for Chicagos first African-American mayor, and the Loop campus of Depaul University, Americas largest Roman Catholic university.</p><br>
<p>Immediately to the west on Jackson Street is the Union League Club of Chicago, founded in 1879 as a civic organization for "upright, law-abiding businessmen". To the north are the three buildings comprising Ludwig Mies van der Rohes minimalist Federal Plaza: the 1964 Everett McKinley Dirksen United States Courthouse, the only courthouse designed by Mies; the 1973 United States Post Office Loop Station; and the 1975 Kluczynski Federal Building, Miess last project, considered to mark the apex of his career. The triangular, 27-story Metropolitan Correctional Center, a detention center serving the Federal courts in the Dirksen Building and nearby Ralph H. Metcalfe Federal Building, is southwest of the Monadnock at Clark and LaSalle.</p><br>
<p>The south leg of the Chicago Transit Authority elevated rail loop runs next to the building on Van Buren Street; the CTA&#39;s Brown, Orange, Pink, and Purple Lines are served by the Library-State/Van Buren stop one block to the east. The Jackson street subway station, serving the Blue Line, is on the Dearborn Street side of the building.</p><br>
<h2>Critical reception and historical significance</h2><br>
<p>Contemporary Chicago critics considered the building too radical a departure from Burnham & Roots previous designs and too extreme in its stark simplicity and disregard for prevailing aesthetic norms, calling it an "engineers house" and a "thoroughly puritanical" example of commercial style. European critics were even less approving. In the words of French architect Jacques Hermant, "The Monadnock was no longer the result of an artist responding to particular needs with intelligence and drawing from them all of the possible consequences. It is the work of a laborer who, without the slightest study, super-imposes 15 strictly identical stories to make a block then stops when he finds the block high enough."</p><br>
<p>Other critics saw this lack of style as "natural" and what made the Monadnock truly modern. New York critic Barr Feree wrote in 1892 that "There are no attempts at facades... no ornamental appendages, nothing but a succession of windows, frankly stating that the structure is an office building, devoted to business, needing and using every available surface." Other critics praised the truthfulness of the building to the ideals of business, which, while "not necessarily the highest to which we might aspire to in art... are the only ideals the business building ought to express". Montgomery Schuyler, one of the Monadnocks most enthusiastic defenders, argued that the Monadnocks lack of ornament was not a lack of art, but rather "radiated the gravity of modern business life".</p><br>
<p>The Monadnock was widely praised by early twentieth-century German architects, including Mies, who on his arrival in Chicago in 1938 declared that "The Monadnock block is of such vigor and force that I am at once proud and happy to make my home here." These European architects found the building&#39;s attention to purpose and functional expression inspiring. Bauhaus architect Ludwig Hilberseimer wrote that "The false solution—unfortunately too common—of applying meaningless and misplaced adornment is here instinctively avoided. An innate feeling for proportion gives this great building inner consistency and logical purity."</p><br>
<p>Modern critics have praised the Monadnock as one of the most important exemplars of the Chicago school, along with Louis Sullivans Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building. It has been called "a triumph of unified design" comparable to Henry Hobson Richardsons Marshall Field&#39;s Wholesale Store, and "one of the most exciting aesthetic experiences our commercial architecture has ever produced".</p><br>
<p>The building was one of the first five selected by the Chicago Commission on Architectural Landmarks in 1958, "in recognition of its original design and its historical interest as the highest wall-bearing structure in Chicago". The commission went on to note that the "restrained use of brick, soaring massive walls, omission of ornamental forms, unite in a building simple yet majestic." In 1973, the Chicago City Council voted unanimously to designate the Monadnock a Chicago Landmark, stating that "The two halves of this building provide a unique perspective for examining the history and development of modern architecture.... Together, they mark the end of one building tradition and the beginning of another." Critics of the Monadnock&#39;s landmark status objected that it would prevent the necessary demolition of the building, which was "an excellent example of a building that is... no longer fulfilling the functions it was designed to fulfill" and "a wasting asset" that underperformed the market and was far less valuable than the land on which it stood would be.</p><br>
<p>The National Register of Historic Places, to which the Monadnock was added in 1970, noted that "the sheer, unadorned walls of this building forming a powerful mass became, prophetically, a forerunner of the slab skyscraper—a style not popular until the late 1920s" and that "the two sections... make, as an ensemble, one of the strongest, yet refined architectural statements in the development of twentieth century architecture." Its nomination as a National Historic Landmark in 1976, as part of the South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row Historic District, included the comment that it was "one of the most classical statements ever made in the skyscraper idiom."</p><br>
<p>Smoketown is a neighborhood one mile  southeast of downtown Louisville, Kentucky. Smoketown has been a historically black neighborhood since the Civil War. It is the only neighborhood in the city that has had such a continuous presence. Smoketown is bounded by Broadway, CSX railroad tracks, Kentucky Street, and I-65.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhoods name apparently comes from the large number of (smoke-producing) kilns in the area during its early brick-making days. An 1823 newspaper advertises a brickyard in the area as part of the farm and residence of "the late Mark Lampton", after whom Lampton Street is probably named. 9 of 20 brickyards in the city had Smoketown addresses according to an 1871 Carons directory, although none remained by 1880, as apparently the supply of clay from under the neighborhood had run out. The abandoned, water-filled clay pits may have given rise to the name "Frogtown" for the neighborhood, which appeared in print in 1880.</p><br>
<p>Some residential development by whites of German ancestry began in the 1850s, but due to the arrival of thousands of freed slaves who moved there from various parts of rural Kentucky after the Civil War, it was solidly African American by 1870. A streetcar line was extended down Preston Street to Kentucky in 1865, spurring growth.</p><br>
<p>With its shotgun houses and narrow streets, Smoketown was a densely populated area with a population of over 15,000 by 1880. African American property ownership was rare, with most living in properties rented from whites.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s the area had high crime and unemployment rates, causing massive population loss. Many of the old shotgun houses have been razed and housing projects built in their place. Since the 1950s, Smoketown has been massively depopulated. As of 2000, the population of Smoketown was 2,116, a decrease of over 38% from 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Revitalization</h2><br>
<p>In May 2011, Louisville received a $22 million federal Hope VI award that will allow the demolition of the deteriorating Sheppard Square housing project, replacing it with new, mixed-income housing. In Mayor Fischer&#39;s Budget Address of May 26, 2011, he said:</p><br>
<p>You all heard the exciting news this week about Sheppard Square. The project will have a value of $157 million over the next decade. Our budget includes $1.6 million to help integrate that new development into the surrounding neighborhood. That will not only make the area a better place to live, but will set the table for the private businesses that settle into any healthy neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>On July 12, 2012, Construction of nine new homes has recently begun near the site of the former Sheppard Square housing development. The nine homes consist of eight in the 500 block of East Breckinridge and one on South Shelby Street.</p><br>
<p>On December 10, 2012, construction began between Hancock, Jacob, Finzer and Jackson Streets, on a $100 million redevelopment of a new, and revitalized mixed-income Sheppard Square housing neighborhood, with a completion date of December 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of 2000, the population of Smoketown was 2,232, of which 13.1% is white, 81.2% is black, 1.8% is listed as other, and 3.8% is Hispanic. College graduates make up 6.0% of the population, and people without a high school degree make up 42.7%. Females outnumber males 53.4% to 46.6%.</p><br>
<h2>Notable locations</h2><br>
<p>Albert E. Meyzeek Middle School is located in the neighborhood at 828 S Jackson St.</p><br>
<p>Bates Memorial Missionary Baptist Church is located in Smoketown at 620 E Lampton St.</p><br>
<p>The Presbyterian Community Center at 701 S Hancock St. was a feature of the Smoketown neighborhood for over 115 years when it closed in 2013. In 2015, Jefferson County Public Schools took over the building to offer Early Head Start programming and renamed the center the Ernest Camp Edwards Education Complex.</p><br>
<p>The Virginia Governors Mansion, better known as the Executive Mansion, is located in Richmond, Virginia, on Capitol Square and serves as the official residence of the governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Designed by Alexander Parris, it is the oldest occupied governors mansion in the United States. It has served as the home of Virginia governors and their families since 1813. This mansion is both a Virginia and a National Historic Landmark and has had a number of renovations and expansions during the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Adjacent and immediately north of Capitol Square is the Court End neighborhood, which houses the White House of the Confederacy. During the Civil War, the Virginia State Capitol, also in Richmond, housed offices of the Confederacy. Tours of the mansion are offered several days a week.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>When Richmond became the capital of Virginia in 1779, there was no residence for the governor, but Thomas Jefferson rented one. The state was so poor that it could not pay the rent in time and blamed Jefferson for the problem. The state finally paid its rent and built a residence for the governor on the site of the present building.</p><br>
<p>The law that provided for the construction of the current building was signed on February 13, 1811, by James Monroe, with the building being completed in 1813. Monroe was succeeded by George William Smith in 1811, but Smith was not the first governor to live in the mansion because he lost his life in the Richmond Theatre fire while he was saving others on December 26, 1811. His successor, James Barbour, was the first governor to live in the mansion. The term "mansion" was not used in the law authorizing it to be built, but it has been used ever since.</p><br>
<p>The gardens were redesigned in the 1950s, at the request of Governor Thomas B. Stanley, by noted landscape architect Charles Gillette.</p><br>
<p>Anne Holton lived in the mansion twice: during the 1970s when her father, A. Linwood Holton Jr., was governor, and returned to the home as Virginias first lady when her husband, Tim Kaine, served as governor from 2006 to 2010. Thomas Jeffersons daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph, known as "Patsy", was also the daughter and wife (to Thomas Mann Randolph Jr.) of Virginia governors, but never lived in the Mansion.</p><br>
<p>Under First Lady Roxane Gilmore, the mansion was renovated and expanded in an effort to restore the home to its historical appearance and to bring the Mansion into compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act, while providing additional living space for the First Family.</p><br>
<h3>In the media</h3><br>
<p>It was featured on American Idol (season 5) when Tim Kaine and his wife, Anne Holton, welcomed Richmond-native and Idol-finalist Elliott Yamin and his family to the mansion on national television.</p><br>
<p>Restoration and remodeling work on the Mansion was shown on Bob Vilas Home Again television shows tenth season, which aired in early 2000.</p><br>
<p>The Mansions most notable television appearance occurred on January 31, 2006, when recently inaugurated Governor Tim Kaine delivered the Democratic response to the 2006 State of the Union address. The address was delivered from the Mansions historic ballroom.</p><br>
<h2>Distinguished visitors</h2><br>
<p>Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII)</p><br>
<p>Queen Elizabeth II</p><br>
<p>Rutherford B. Hayes</p><br>
<p>Grover Cleveland</p><br>
<p>William McKinley</p><br>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>William Howard Taft</p><br>
<p>Arthur Balfour</p><br>
<p>Ferdinand Foch</p><br>
<p>Winston Churchill</p><br>
<p>Charles Lindbergh</p><br>
<p>Richard Evelyn Byrd</p><br>
<p>Spook Hill is a gravity hill, an optical illusion in Lake Wales, Florida, where cars appear to roll up the spooky hill.</p><br>
<p>Spook Hill is located on the Lake Wales Ridge, a geologically significant range of sand and limestone hills, which were islands from two to three million years ago, when sea levels were much higher than at present.</p><br>
<p>The attraction is adjacent to Spook Hill Elementary School, which adopted Casper the Friendly Ghost as their school mascot. The attraction is also close to the Bok Tower.</p><br>
<p>Spook Hill received national media attention when an article about it appeared on the front page of the Wall Street Journal on October 25, 1990, and it was featured in a segment on CBS Morning News with Charles Osgood on November 5, 1990. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2019.</p><br>
<p>The Samuel Cupples House is a historic mansion in St. Louis, Missouri, constructed from 1888 to 1890 by Samuel Cupples. It is now a museum on the campus of Saint Louis University. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Originally designed by Thomas B. Annan in the Romanesque Revival architectural style, Originally, the home was the residence of wealthy St. Louis entrepreneur Samuel Cupples. In 1946, the house was bought by Saint Louis University for $50,000 USD and converted to serve as a student center (complete with a bowling alley and bar in the basement) and an office for academic advising.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, Maurice McNamee, S.J. was tasked with restoring the mansion to its original appearance. Since its restoration, the house has been converted into a museum.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibits</h2><br>
<p>Today, the Eleanor Turshin Glass Collection is shown throughout the house as a permanent exhibit showcasing Art Nouveau and Art Deco glassware. The basement of the building houses the McNamee Gallery, which hosts art exhibitions of SLU students and faculty, as well as visiting artists.</p><br>
<p>The Otto H. Kahn House is a mansion at 1 East 91st Street, at Fifth Avenue, in the Carnegie Hill section of the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. The four-story mansion was designed by architects J. Armstrong Stenhouse and C. P. H. Gilbert in the neo-Italian Renaissance style. It was completed in 1918 as the town residence of the financier and philanthropist Otto H. Kahn and his family. The Convent of the Sacred Heart, a private school, owns the Kahn House along with the adjacent James A. Burden House, which is internally connected. The mansion is a New York City designated landmark and, along with the Burden House, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The mansion&#39;s facade is made of French limestone and is rusticated on the first and second stories, with large archways on the first floor. The house has French- and Italian-style interiors and is divided into front and rear sections, with an oval entrance hall connecting the floors. The first floor originally contained reception spaces while the second floor had spaces including a study, library, theater, drawing room, and dining room. On the top stories, there were 15 bedrooms with en suite dressing rooms and bathrooms.</p><br>
<p>Andrew Carnegie purchased the site in 1898 to protect the value of his nearby mansion, but he did not sell it until 1913, when Kahn bought the plot. After the house was completed, the Kahns hosted various events there, splitting their time between their 91st Street residence and Oheka Castle on Long Island. The family was seeking to sell the house by the early 1930s. After Otto Kahn died in 1934, the Convent of the Sacred Heart bought it and converted the house into classrooms, a library, and offices. The house was renovated in the late 20th century, though many of the interior spaces have been preserved.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Otto H. Kahn House is at 1 East 91st Street in the Carnegie Hill section of the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. It stands on the northeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 91st Street, facing Central Park to the west. During the 20th century, the house occupied the north end of Fifth Avenues Millionaires Row. On the same city block to the east are the James A. Burden House (which is internally connected with the Kahn House The Felix M. Warburg House, containing the Jewish Museum, is on the block to the north. Just south of the Otto H. Kahn House is the Andrew Carnegie Mansion at 2 East 91st Street, housing the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum. The townhouses on 11, 15, and 17 East 90th Street and the Spence School are located on the same block as the Carnegie Mansion, southeast of the Kahn House.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architects J. Armstrong Stenhouse and C. P. H. Gilbert designed the house at 1 East 91st Street for the family of financier Otto Hermann Kahn in the neo-Italian Renaissance style. It is four stories high with a basement and the house measures about 100 ft to its roof. The house was modeled after the Palazzo della Cancelleria of the Papal Chancellery in Rome.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>The house was built of French limestone from St. Quentin, The use of rusticated blocks and iron grillwork was intended to make the structure appear like a Renaissance palazzo. There is a niche at either end of the driveway, as well as a coffered ceiling, which is made of stucco. At the extreme eastern end of the southern elevation is a rusticated wall, with service areas behind the walls.</p><br>
<p>The second story is designed like a piano nobile and is rusticated, albeit with smoother limestone and shallower joints compared with the first floor. Each window is designed as a French window with leaded glass panes and wood frames behind a small balustrade. Above the second-story windows are pediments that are alternately segmentally arched and triangular, and there are vertical pilasters between each of the windows. The third and fourth stories have a smooth facade, except for a horizontal string course that connects the fourth-floor windows. There are cornices above the third-floor windows, while the fourth-floor windows have simpler frames and are proportionally smaller. Above the fourth floor is a protruding cornice with modillions, which is surrounded by a balustrade.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the northern and eastern elevations are visible from the street and are similar to the western and southern elevations. The eastern elevation has a Renaissance-style tower topped by a water tank. On the roof are several rooms that are set back slightly from the facade. Visible from the roof was a small garden house, a fountain, and a porch, which one critic from 1919 described as "a glimpse of Italy, in more intimate guise".</p><br>
<p>A courtyard is on the northern side of the site and extends into the center of the building, allowing rooms in the middle of the house to be illuminated by natural light. The stone facade of the courtyard is decorated with elements such as arches and stairways; this was a contrast to the lightwells of similar mansions, which did not have decorative facades. The courtyard&#39;s southeastern corner has a water tank and a staircase tower.</p><br>
<h3>Features</h3><br>
<p>The house has a floor area of 50,316 ft&sup2; and was one of Manhattans largest private houses, It has been cited as containing a total of 66 rooms or 80 rooms. as well as an oak-paneled library and spacious reception room. Original photographs of the more formal rooms taken during the Kahns occupancy show them decorated in an 18th-century French and Italian style; many of the original decorations remain intact.The first through third stories are connected to the Burden House&#39;s rear rooms via a glass passageway that is set back from the street. Since the floor levels are uneven, the connection is slightly sloped.</p><br>
<h4>Basements and first story</h4><br>
<p>There are two basement levels and five above-ground stories. The second basement had electrical generators and a heating plant. The first basement had servants&#39; living quarters, a kitchen, and a pantry, as well as 40 bedrooms for servants.</p><br>
<p>The entrance leads to an entry hall with limestone walls supporting a plaster groin vault; this hall is decorated with pediments, niches, and cornice moldings. There is a grand staircase on the western wall and a smaller staircase and elevator on the eastern wall. The rest of the first floor was used as reception spaces. As originally arranged, there was a smaller hall leading west of the entry hall, which in turn connected to three reception spaces on the first floor. The spaces had ceilings measuring close to 20 ft high. One account from 1934 described the spaces as a dining room, library, music room, French room, and Italian room. The Convent of the Sacred Heart school, which took over the house in 1934, converted these spaces into offices, meeting spaces, and ancillary spaces.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>The second-story rooms, which included a study, library, theater, drawing room, and dining room, were intended as the most ornate in the house. Facing the inner court is a foyer with a fireplace and two limestone stairways to the upper stories.</p><br>
<p>On the third and fourth stories, there were 15 bedrooms, each with en suite dressing rooms and bathrooms.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In December 1898, the industrialist Andrew Carnegie bought all of the lots on Fifth Avenue between 90th and 92nd streets, with the intent of building his mansion on some of these plots. Carnegie ultimately decided to erect his mansion only on the plots between 90th and 91st streets. He retained ownership of several nearby lots to protect his home&#39;s value, selling them only to "congenial neighbors". Carnegie tried to split up the parcel at the northeast corner of 91st Street and Fifth Avenue in 1906, with plans to sell half of it to the politician Lloyd S. Bryce. Sloane and his daughters all opposed the sale, and they filed a lawsuit which prevented Carnegie from selling that plot to anyone. Bryce decided not to buy the corner parcel.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>The Jewish-American financier Otto Hermann Kahn was the next owner of the lot at 91st Street and Fifth Avenue. Kahn, who had immigrated to the USA in 1893, was a senior partner at the investment bank Kuhn, Loeb and Co. and there were rumors that he would move out of the USA altogether. News media reported in May 1913 that Kahn had purchased the lot at the northeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 91st Street from Carnegie. Carnegie sold the corner of Fifth Avenue and 91st Street to the Lawyers&#39; Realty Company (representing Kahn) in June 1913. Kahn paid $725,000 and took a $675,000 mortgage loan from Carnegie. After the Sloanes dropped their lawsuit against Carnegie,</p><br>
<p>Kahn hired Gilbert as the houses architect in August 1913, He also planned to import French stone. Work was briefly halted before resuming in May 1914, although Gilbert had still not received bids for the houses construction at the time. Ultimately, René Sergent was hired as a consulting engineer, while the Thompson–Starrett Company was hired as the general contractor. Work commenced in July 1914, Construction of the house itself had begun by early 1916; The New York Times said the same year that Kahn&#39;s house was one of the largest to be built in the neighborhood in several years. The Kahn House was nearly completed by early 1917, though Kahn was still listed as living on 68th Street.</p><br>
<h3>Use as residence</h3><br>
<p>Otto Kahns house was completed around 1918, The 91st Street mansion housed the familys 22 servants as well. Despite Kahn&#39;s extreme wealth, In 1919, the first full year after the house was finished, it was valued at $1.35 million.</p><br>
<p>In the houses early years, the Kahns frequently hosted theatrical figures and financiers in the ballroom. The house hosted events such as a debutante ball for the Kahns daughter Margaret in 1920, an exhibition of Persian art in 1927, and Margarets wedding in 1928. When Otto and Addies youngest son Roger formed a jazz orchestra in 1924, the orchestra practiced in the mansion. Other events hosted at the house during the 1920s included musical and dance performances; meetings; charitable benefits; and parties. Because the house did not have its own garage, Kahn hired Gilbert in 1927 to design a 10-car garage for him at 422 East 89th Street.</p><br>
<p>By the late 1920s, many of Fifth Avenue&#39;s mansions were being demolished to make way for apartments; although the Kahn House remained standing, an adjacent house had been replaced with a 13-story apartment building. Kahn reportedly lost over $50 million during the Wall Street Crash of 1929, although the family retained ownership of the house. The house continued to host events in the early 1930s, including a recital by Alexis Obolensky and business dinners.</p><br>
<p>The Convent of the Sacred Heart, a private girls school, began negotiating for the house in 1932. Kahn negotiated a tentative agreement with the school in early 1934, one month before he died. At the time of Kahns death, the Kahn House and several other houses along the block were restricted to residential use because of a covenant placed by Andrew Carnegie. provided that the height of the house was not increased. The restriction was thus lifted to allow the Kahn House to be sold.</p><br>
<h3>Use as school</h3><br>
<p>In May 1934, the Convent of the Sacred Heart paid $900,000 for the house and sold its existing building on Madison Avenue to the Oheka Corporation. One critic called the sale a sign of the transformation of the surrounding neighborhood, Every December, the school invited the public to attend Christmas tree lighting ceremonies in the lower stories.</p><br>
<p>Sacred Heart acquired the neighboring Burden House in 1940, using that house as a boarding school. By the late 1960s, the schools nuns lived on the fifth floor of the house. After Sacred Heart sought to raise $90,000 for an expansion of the school in 1966, students parents donated $150,000. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) consequently designated the Burden and Kahn houses as landmarks.</p><br>
<p>During the 1970s, the Burden and Kahn houses began hosting regular chamber music performances. After a Sacred Heart alumnus requested permission to host her wedding at the Burden House in 1973, Sacred Heart began renting out both houses ballrooms and the Kahn Houses courtyard for weddings outside of school hours. The houses also hosted seminars, parties, photo shoots, and benefit parties. There were also occasional tours of the Kahn House, and the structure continued to host events into the late 20th century, including TV commercial shoots and antiques shows. In general, visitors not affiliated with the school could only enter the house by appointment.</p><br>
<p>The architectural firm of Buttrick, White, and Burtis was hired in the early 1980s to add a gymnasium, laboratories, and classroom space in the Burden and Kahn houses. The project, which was estimated to cost $1.5 million, was funded in part from revenue generated by the Burden Houses ballroom, as well as from events such as tours and Christmas tree sales. By the 2000s, the Kahn House was known as the Convent of the Sacred Hearts Duchesne Residence. The house contains Convent of the Sacred Heart&#39;s middle and upper schools.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>Upon the house&#39;s completion, the Architectural Review praised the mansion as "a remarkable example of well-balanced re-adjustment in those aesthetic elements that are found in architecture of the early sixteenth century in Italy". The magazine further deemed J. Armstrong Stenhouse to have "achieved a work which ranks as the foremost of its kind in this country." The Landmarks Preservation Commission described the building as "the finest Italian Renaissance-style mansion in New York City".</p><br>
<p>Architectural critic Henry Hope Reed Jr. wrote in 1961 that the Kahn, Burden, and Hammond houses were "the crown jewel of the block", and Women&#39;s Wear Daily said the building was "an architecturally perfect sample of Italian Renaissance architecture". A critic for The New York Times described the Kahn and Burden houses in 1972 as having "what may be the most lordly rooms any New York schoolchild studies in". The historian Christopher Gray said in 1990 that the Kahn House was the "last and grandest" of the houses on the surrounding block, though he later wrote that it was "very reserved" compared with other structures like the Warburg House one block north. Jayne Merkel wrote in 1996 that the Kahn and Burden houses "give the school a uniqueness and elegance that money cannot easily buy". Gray wrote in 2014 that the houses helped form one of the "grandest blocks" in the city.</p><br>
<p>The mansion has also been used as a filming location. For example, the 1971 movie The Anderson Tapes was partially filmed at the Kahn House,</p><br>
<p>The LPC selected the Kahn House in 1963 as one of 300 tentative city landmarks, and the American Institute of Architects included the building in an exhibit of the city&#39;s historic buildings in 1967. The LPC first proposed the Carnegie Hill Historic District in 1966, which would have included both the Kahn and Burden houses. The LPC began considering the buildings as individual city landmarks in 1967, The LPC designated the Kahn and Burden mansions as individual landmarks in February 1974, When the Carnegie Hill Historic District was expanded in 1993, both structures were included in the expanded district. The Kahn and Burden mansions were collectively added to the New York State Register of Historic Places on June 28, 2006, and to the National Register of Historic Places on September 12, 2006.</p><br>
<p>The Virginia Beach Surf & Rescue Museum honors and preserves the history of Virginia&#39;s maritime heritage, coastal communities, the United States Lifesaving Service, and the United States Coast Guard along the Atlantic coast.</p><br>
<h2>History of the Revenue Cutter Service</h2><br>
<p>In 1790, the United States Congress empowered the Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton to construct ten cutters to acquire custom duties from foreign ships visiting the ports of the young nation. The ten cutters provided 92% of the young nations income with collections of custom duties. In six years the young nations debt was paid off to foreign countries. The role of the Revenue Cutter Service would expand to protecting the young nation in times of national security. The Revenue Cutter Service would be placed under the control of the United States Navy. This practice continues today with authorization from the President of the United States. The organization and rank formation of the United States Coast Guard coincides with the United States Navy for such emergencies. The officers and crew of the US Revenue Cutter Service would collect a percentage of the fines, penalties, and forfeitures collected from offenders.</p><br>
<p>In 1878 the United States Congress passed a law that would join the Revenue Cutter Service and the United States Life-Saving Service to provide assistance to persons that had been shipwrecked. The joining of the two concerns; in regards to Life-Saving was a success. In 1882 superintendent of the United States Life-Saving Service Sumner I. Kimball wrote in a report that the success of the United States Life-Saving Service was enhanced by the Revenue Cutter Service. Sumner I. Kimball stated that "little wonder the United States Life-Saving Service has succeeded; the souls of such men have entered it, and it has become an incarnation. In the later years, the efforts of the two Services would help create the United States Coast Guard. The United States Revenue Cutter Service success is shown over a five year period from 1881 to 1885. The numbers that are shown are a yearly average: Saved from drowning 87, assisting vessels in distress 208, value of cargo on vessels $4,498,078, maintenance cost $843,595.</p><br>
<h2>History of United States Life-Saving Service</h2><br>
<p>On December 14, 1854 the United States Congress passed "An act for the better preservation of life and property from vessels shipwrecked on the coasts of the United States. The Civil War disrupted the formation of the United States Life-Saving Service. In the year 1870 a powerful storm caused many deaths and newspaper editors called for "reform to check the terrible fatalities off our dangerous coasts" In the year 1871 the United States Life-Saving Service was formed under the Department of the Treasury. The Treasury Department appointed a lawyer named, Sumner Increase Kimball as the chief of the Treasury Department&#39;s Revenue Marine Division The United States Life-Saving Service was under the Revenue Marine Division. In 1878 the growing number of United States Life-Saving Service stations brought about the USLSS becoming a separate agency.</p><br>
<p>Kimball brought organization and standards to the USLSS that was once a mostly volunteer organization. During the volunteer times, only the "keepers" of these early stations were paid $200 a year. The crews of the early stations were un-paid volunteers. Through Kimball&#39;s guidance the number of Life-Saving Service stations grew to meet the need for rescuing victims of shipwrecks. The unforgivable coast line of the Northeast claimed many lives and much property. The number of USLSS stations was greater in the Northeast than in the moderate climate and more forgiving coastlines of the lower Southeast.</p><br>
<p>The USLSS served the United States with distinction for forty-four years. The success of the USLSS can be seen in economic terms and more importantly; peoples lives. In the forty-four years the USLSS assisted 28,121 ships and saved 178,741 lives.</p><br>
<h2>Life-saving stations and equipment</h2><br>
<p>In November 1889 Sumner I. Kimball reported that there were 265 life-saving stations across the United States. The stations are occupied during the months of the active season. The active season was normally for the months of October to March, depending on the needs of the area patrolled. Each station had a keeper that was in charge of the quarters and the Surfmen. The keeper and the Surfmen would be responsible for patrolling the beach and maintaining a watch for vessels in distress. The patrols are conducted twenty-four hours a day during active season. The stations were equipped with surfboat, apparatus cart, Lyle gun, and breeches buoy.</p><br>
<p>The stations located in the Virginia Beach area were Cape Henry, Seatack, Dam Neck, Little Island, and False Cape.</p><br>
<p>The five stations located in Virginia Beach were located approximately two to five miles apart. The Surfmen would patrol the beaches in all types of weather. When storms and dark of night would restrict the visibility of the men in the watchtower, the surfman would patrol the beach. The surfmen would leave at a scheduled time and walk towards the opposite station. Once the surfmen met they would exchange a check. The check was a shaped piece of metal that resembles a modern-day police shield. According to Sumner Kimball the exchanging of checks would insure fidelity of the patrols. The isolated stations would record their patrol times with patrol clock. The clock would register the time when the surfmen reached the end of their patrol. All of the patrols were recorded and logged at the Life-Saving Station. If during a patrol a surfman spotted a ship in trouble, he would signal the ship with a Coston flare that help was on the way. The Coston flare would alert the other surfmen on watch or at the station. The surfmen would man the apparatus cart and pull and push the 1400 pound and above cart through wet sand, gale-force winds, and high surf to render aid to victims of a shipwreck. If conditions dictated it, the surfboat would be used. The surfboat was also placed on a wheeled cart to travel to a wreck. Upon arrival at the shipwreck; the keeper of the station would determine the method of rescue.</p><br>
<h2>The Seatack Station and the wreck of the Diktator</h2><br>
<p>The first station was built in 1878. The station at Seatack, built in 1903 replacing the earlier structure, is now the museum at 24th street adjacent to the boardwalk of Virginia Beach, Virginia. The folk-lore of the name seatack has two possible explanations. The less probable is the story of a group of local militia that repelled a sea-attack from the British, during the War of 1812. The more likely story is that when mariners cleared Cape Henry, they would begin their first turn or sea tack.</p><br>
<p>There were many local heroes of the Seatack Station #2. Surfman John Woodhouse Sparrow was one of them. On December 21, 1900 a powerful storm forced the ship Jennie Hall aground ten miles south of Cape Henry. A surfman from the Dam Neck station named Carroll saw the Jennie Hall disabled, and he alerted his station. The Seatack Station was notified and a joint effort commenced. The Jennie Hall was a complete loss, but with the efforts of the surfmen there were survivors. Four seamen from the Jennie Hall were saved by surfboat. For his efforts, John Woodhouse Sparrow from the Seatack Station was awarded the USLSS Silver Lifesaving Medal. The wreck of the Jennie Hall is just one of the wrecks that occurred off the coast of Virginia Beach. There are photos, stories, and artifacts from various wrecks including the Diktator displayed at the museum. The Virginia Beach coastline is a part of the Graveyard of the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>It is the shipwreck of the Diktator that the Seatack Station has been associated with for many years. On March 27, 1891, the Norwegian ship Diktator wrecked off the beach near the Seatack Station. A surfman named John L. Robinson was assigned to Seatack, and he told the story of the rescue. The ship wrecked around 10 am. The keeper of the station was a Captain Drinkwater. Drinkwater told his men that the ship was "coming ashore," and ordered them to "man the apparatus cart and get ready to go to the wreck." Robinson remembers that the storm was so severe that they could not use the beach for the cart. They had to use a "country road" that was partially blocked by fallen trees. The surfmen had to travel 1+1/2 mi to get to the beach. They arrived at the section of the beach where the ship now lay off the beach; broadside. He tells how waves were breaking over the ship and causing further damage to the ship He tells how the wind was so severe the Lyle gun was fired three times without success. The line that is fired from the Lyle gun has an optimal range of 695 yards, but with perfect conditions. He tells that the wind was so severe, the line would fall short.</p><br>
<p>The men on the ship saw the failed attempts of the Lyle gun and threw a wooden cask over board with a line attached. The cask made it to shore and the surfman placed the line for the breeches buoy in the cask. The crew of the Diktator rigged the line to their ship and prepared for the breeches buoy to be brought out to the ship. The breeches buoy is a life-ring with "britches" sewn onto the ring. The device would be placed on a hawser line and between the crew of the ship and the surfmen they would transport victims of shipwrecks from ship to shore.</p><br>
<p>The surfmen managed to bring three members of the Diktator safely to the beach, before wreckage of the ship tangled the hawser lines. The crew of the ship and the surfmen worried that time was running out for more rescues, because night was falling quickly. The Captain of the Diktator decided that he and his crew had to get off the ship soon. The Captain lowered a boat from the Diktator with four crew members. The small boat capsized in the large waves and the crew was now in the cold water. The crew started to swim for shore and the large waves pushed them into the shore. The surfmen had made fires on the beach to alert any survivors to their location. Robinson tells how miraculously all four Diktator crew members made it to the beach; alive. He also details how the Captain of the Diktator made his way to the beach. The Captain survived, but others did not, including his wife and their four-year-old son. The Captain tells how he decided to attempt to swim to the shore. He took a ladder from the ship and placed life-preservers on the ladder. The Captain, his wife, and their son would hold onto the ladder and hopefully be washed to the shore. A wave broke over the ladder and he did not see his wife again. The Captain heard his son crying and told him to hold his breath when a big wave broke over them. A large wave came and broke over the two and that was the last time he saw his son.</p><br>
<p>The Captain was the last survivor of the Diktator. A total of ten people survived but the ship was a total loss, with eight people drowned. In 1962 the Norwegian town of Moss sent a replica of the figurehead from the Diktator to the residents of Virginia Beach. A plaque on the figurehead tells how the people of Moss, Norway, commemorate all who perished during the rescue of the Diktator The figurehead is approximately 100 yd north of the Old Coast Guard Station Museum.</p><br>
<h2>The United States Coast Guard</h2><br>
<p>In 1915, the United States Lifesaving Service became the United States Coast Guard. The USLSS and the Revenue Cutter Service were combined to make the United States Coast Guard. The Seatack Station #2 became Coast Guard Station #162. The United States Coast Guard is now under the Department of Homeland Security. The Station was decommissioned in 1969 by the Coast Guard. The building was empty for ten years and scheduled for demolition, until Virginia Beach locals gained public support and formed the Virginia Beach Maritime Museum in 1979. The name of the museum was changed to the Life-Saving Museum of Virginia in 1988, but was changed to the Old Coast Guard Museum in 1996.</p><br>
<p>The Seatack Station was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>Other Coast Guard museums</h2><br>
<p>Coast Guard Museum Northwest</p><br>
<p>Port Orford Lifeboat Station Museum</p><br>
<p>Sleeping Bear Point Coast Guard Station Maritime Museum</p><br>
<p>USCGC Tamaroa (WMEC-166) (museum ship)</p><br>
<p>The Occidental Life Building is a historic office building in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in the United States. Featuring an unusual Venetian Gothic Revival architectural style inspired by the Doges Palace in Venice, the building is one of the citys most recognizable landmarks and has been described as "unique in the country".</p><br>
<p>The building was designed by Henry C. Trost and opened in 1917. A fire in 1933 left the Occidental Life Building mostly gutted; however the exterior walls remained standing and the remainder of the structure was rebuilt. The architect for the reconstruction, W. Miles Brittelle, took the opportunity to redesign the roofline for a more consistent Venetian appearance. The building interior was remodeled again in 1981 to add a second story.</p><br>
<p>The Occidental Life Building is located on the northwest corner of Third Street and Gold Avenue in Downtown Albuquerque. It was added to the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties in 1973 and the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Occidental Life Building was built in 1917 as the new headquarters of the Occidental Life Insurance Company, which had been organized in 1906 by a group of prominent local businessmen. The building was designed by Henry C. Trost, the chief architect of the El Paso firm of Trost & Trost. Trost was a prolific designer whose other built works in Albuquerque include the Rosenwald Building, First National Bank Building, and Sunshine Building. The building&#39;s unusual Venetian Gothic design was reportedly suggested by Occidental Life vice president George Roslington, a native of England.</p><br>
<p>The building opened to the public with an evening ceremony on August 1, 1917, which was attended by an estimated 1,000 people. In recognition of the American entry into World War I that year, the program included performances of Rule, Britannia!, The Maple Leaf Forever, and La Marseillaise. The building&#39;s early tenants included a number of other insurance agencies in addition to Occidental Life, as well as savings and loan companies, realtors, and an engineering firm.</p><br>
<p>A fire broke out in the Occidental Life Building early on the morning of April 25, 1933, causing an estimated $100,000 in damage before firefighters managed to extinguish it around noon that day. The building was mostly gutted, though the exterior walls remained intact up to the roofline. The Albuquerque Journal reported that the fire was thought to have started "between the ceiling and the roof in the northeast corner of the building". The fire occurred just hours after the burning of another Albuquerque landmark, the Fourth Ward School (replaced the following year by Lew Wallace Elementary), leading police and local residents to suspect arson.</p><br>
<p>Following the fire, the building was rebuilt to the design of W. Miles Brittelle of the Albuquerque firm of Brittelle and Ginner, reopening in the spring of 1934. In keeping with the buildings Venetian influence, Brittelle decided to redesign the roofline to more closely resemble the Doges Palace, with an ornamental frieze and finials in place of the original overhanging cornice. The interior office space was also expanded by eliminating the original open arcade behind the facade, and the building structure was upgraded from frame to steel construction. In 1981 the interior was remodeled again to add a second story within the original facade.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Occidental Life Building features a Venetian Gothic Revival architectural style which is highly unusual for New Mexico, and has been described by the Albuquerque Landmarks and Urban Conservation Commission as "unique in the country." The Baum Building in Oklahoma City, built in 1909, employed similar architectural features but was demolished in the early 1970s.</p><br>
<p>The buildings most significant feature is the white terra cotta facade, which wraps around the south and east sides of the building. The facade was modeled after that of the Doges Palace in Venice, with arcades of pointed Venetian Gothic arches, quatrefoil windows, and, following the 1934 rebuilding, an ornamental frieze with a row of finials. The spandrels and capitals are decorated with elaborate floral ornamentation, and the building&#39;s rounded corners are punctuated with pointed turrets. The tile used in both the original and rebuilt portions of the exterior was manufactured by the Denver Terra-Cotta Tile Company.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol at Williamsburg, Virginia housed both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, the Governor&#39;s Council and the House of Burgesses of the colony of Virginia from 1705, six years after the colonial capital was relocated there from Jamestown, until 1780, when the capital was relocated to Richmond. Two capitol buildings served the colony on the same site: the first from 1705 until its destruction by fire in 1747; the second from 1753 to 1780.</p><br>
<p>The earlier capitol was reconstructed in the early 1930s as part of the restoration of Colonial Williamsburg. The reconstruction has thus lasted longer than the combined total of both original capitol buildings.</p><br>
<h2>History of Williamsburg</h2><br>
<h3>First Williamsburg Capitol (1705–1747)</h3><br>
<p>In 1698, the Capitol building in Jamestown, Virginia, burned. Following the fire, the government of Virginia decided to relocate inland, away from the swamps at the Jamestown site.</p><br>
<p>A better Capitol building was constructed by Henry Cary, a contractor finishing work on the College of William and Mary Wren Building (the legislatures temporary home). Begun in 1701, the Capitol was completed in 1705, although the legislature moved in during 1704. In 1714, the Governors Palace was constructed between the College and the Capitol.</p><br>
<p>The Colonial Capitol was a two-story H-shaped structure, functionally two buildings connected by an arcade. Each wing served one of the two houses of the Virginia legislature, the Council and the House of Burgesses. The first floor of the west building was for the General Court and the colony&#39;s secretary, the first floor of the east for the House of Burgesses and its clerk. As a result of the fires that had destroyed several prior Virginia capitals, Cary built the first Capitol without fireplaces. In 1723, chimneys were added for fireplaces to help keep the Capitol dry. On January 30, 1747, the building burned and only some walls and the foundation remained.</p><br>
<h3>Second Williamsburg Capitol (1753–1779)</h3><br>
<p>Governor William Gooch urged that the Capitol be rebuilt, but many legislators preferred relocating the government to a city more accessible to trade and navigation. In the meantime, the burgesses met again at the nearby Wren Building. Finally, in November 1748, reconstruction of the Capitol was approved (by only two votes: 40 to 38). The burgesses met inside for the first time on November 1, 1753. James Skelton, owner of Elk Island, was contracted to build the Capitol.</p><br>
<p>In this building, Patrick Henry delivered his Caesar-Brutus speech against the Stamp Act on May 29, 1765. Henry, George Washington, George Mason, George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, and others played parts in the legislative maneuvering that ended in revolution. As fighting began in the North, the building featured discussion concerning Masons Virginia Declaration of Rights, his Virginia constitution, and Jeffersons first attempt at a bill for religious freedom.</p><br>
<p>On June 29, 1776, Virginians declared their independence from Great Britain and wrote the state&#39;s first constitution, thereby creating an independent government four days before Congress voted for the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia on July 4.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol at Williamsburg served until the American Revolutionary War began, when Governor Thomas Jefferson urged it that the capital be relocated to Richmond. The building was last used as a capitol on December 24, 1779, when the Virginia General Assembly adjourned to reconvene in 1780 at the new capital, Richmond.</p><br>
<p>After the capital of Virginia was moved to Richmond in 1779, the old Capitol was used for a wide range of purposes, from a court to a school. The east wing was removed around 1800 because of its dangerous condition, leaving only the west wing standing for the next 30 years, until it was destroyed by fire in 1832, leaving no trace of the original structure, except for the outline of its foundations.</p><br>
<h2>Reconstruction</h2><br>
<p>The building that stands now in Colonial Williamsburg is the third Capitol on that site. Early in the 20th century, the Reverend Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin undertook restoration of historic Bruton Parish Church (c. 1711) where he was rector. His dreams of restoring other buildings of the old colonial capital city led to his affiliation with Standard Oil heir and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. and the creation of Colonial Williamsburg. The reconstructed Capitol and Governor&#39;s Palace join the Wren Building of the College of William & Mary as the three main structures of the restoration.</p><br>
<p>The architects charged with restoration of Williamsburg chose to reconstruct the first capitol based on superior documentation of its design, including in the 1929-discovered Bodleian Plate, and its unique architecture compared to the second Capitol. Later architectural historians have since shown that parts of the reconstruction, chiefly its foundations, were embellished or conjectural and were based more on contemporary architectural ideas than actual historic evidence. However, the reconstructed Capitol is now itself valued as a Colonial Revival interpretation and work of architecture.</p><br>
<p>The reconstruction opened to the public on February 24, 1934.</p><br>
<p>Woodland Cemetery and Arboretum , located at 118 Woodland Avenue, Dayton, Ohio, is one of the oldest garden cemeteries in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Woodland was incorporated in 1842 by John Whitten Van Cleve, the first male child born in Dayton. He was the son of Benjamin Van Cleve and Mary Whitten Van Cleve. The cemetery began with 40 acre southeast of Dayton and has been enlarged to its present size of 200 acre. Over 3,000 trees and 165 specimens of native Midwestern trees and woody plants grace the rolling hills. Many of the trees are more than a century old and 9 have been designated "Ohio Champions". The highest point in Dayton is within the cemetery, and during the Great Dayton Flood of 1913, it became a place of refuge.</p><br>
<p>The Romanesque gateway, chapel and office, completed in 1889, are on the National Register of Historic Places. The buildings were constructed of the stone from the original cemetery wall. The chapel has one of the finest original Tiffany windows in the country. A mausoleum, with a rock and bronze exterior, features twenty-two varieties of imported marble and twelve large stained glass windows inspired by famous literary works. It was added in 1970. The oldest original 105-acre section of the cemetery, known as "Victorian", received a second designation as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 2011.</p><br>
<p>A receiving vault large enough to contain 12 crypts was built in 1847 by Joseph Wuichert, who was said to be Dayton&#39;s premier stonemason. Throughout the 19th century it was used for temporary storage when burials were delayed due to bad weather or for other reasons (for example, refer to the article below on Levi and Matilda Stanley). Located near the main entrance to the cemetery and across from the mausoleum, it is constructed of giant limestone slabs and was designed as a replica of the Egyptian-style temple of Thebes and Karnak. It was unused for nearly 100 years but the exterior was restored in 2008 to its original condition.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>The monuments, ranging from rugged boulders to Greek statues and temples, memorialize the lives of people who helped shape the nation and the city. Woodland is the final resting place for more than 100,000 people, including:</p><br>
<p>Orville and Wilbur Wright, inventors of the airplane</p><br>
<p>Jordan Anderson, freed slave and letter writer</p><br>
<p>John H. Balsley, inventor of the folding step-ladder</p><br>
<p>Alice Pike Barney, artist</p><br>
<p>Loren M. Berry, inventor of the Yellow Pages</p><br>
<p>Eva Best, story writer, poet, music composer, dramatist</p><br>
<p>Erma Bombeck, humorist and writer</p><br>
<p>Alex Campbell, professional golfer of early 20th century</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Leslie Carter, actress</p><br>
<p>William Charch, DuPont Chemist, inventor of moistureproof cellophane for food packaging.</p><br>
<p>Charlotte Reeve Conover, historian</p><br>
<p>Daniel C. Cooper, surveyor and Proprietor of Dayton</p><br>
<p>James M. Cox, newspaper publisher, Governor of Ohio and Presidential candidate</p><br>
<p>Edward A. Deeds, engineer, inventor and industrialist</p><br>
<p>Paul Laurence Dunbar, poet, novelist, and short story writer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries</p><br>
<p>John Glossinger, popularized the Oh Henry! candy bar</p><br>
<p>Charles Herby, architect</p><br>
<p>Marj Heyduck, Dayton Daily News columnist and editor</p><br>
<p>George P. Huffman, industrialist (Huffy Bicycles)</p><br>
<p>Andrew Iddings, inventor of the stereoptic (3-D) camera.</p><br>
<p>Charles F. Kettering, inventor, engineer, businessman, holder of 186 patents, founder of Delco, head of research at General Motors from 1920 to 1947, invented the automobile electric starter among other important inventions.</p><br>
<p>Earl Kiser, bicyclist and auto racer, "Little Dayton Demon"</p><br>
<p>L. L. Langstroth, father of American beekeeping</p><br>
<p>Leroy Tate Marshall, US representative</p><br>
<p>George Mead, industrialist (Mead Paper)</p><br>
<p>James Albert Parsons, Jr., metallurgist, inventor, educator; invented stainless steel, corrosion-resistant materials</p><br>
<p>John H. Patterson, industrialist (NCR)</p><br>
<p>James Ritty, inventor of the cash register</p><br>
<p>James Findlay Schenck, Rear Admiral, United States Navy</p><br>
<p>Robert Cumming Schenck, Civil War General, member of US Congress and Ambassador to Brazil and United Kingdom</p><br>
<p>David A. Sinclair (1874–1902), Scottish immigrant and secretary of the Dayton YMCA, established a YMCA training school in 1888 and is the namesake of Sinclair Community College</p><br>
<p>Jacob William Sortman, well respected Dayton builder and brickmason of the late 1800’s, was a member of the 66th Illinois Infantry Regiment, also known as the Western Sharpshooters, in the Civil War (1861-1864) and fought in 31 battles and skirmishes,</p><br>
<p>Levi and Matilda Stanley, "King and Queen" of the Gypsies</p><br>
<p>John W. Stoddard built the Stoddard-Dayton automobile</p><br>
<p>Gertrude Strohm, author, compiler, game designer</p><br>
<p>Stephen W. Thompson, World War I aviator</p><br>
<p>Clement Vallandigham Congressman and Copperhead leader</p><br>
<p>David Ziegler, first mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio</p><br>
<p>Milton Wright, father of aviation pioneers Wilbur Wright and Orville Wright, and a bishop of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ.</p><br>
<p>Gloria Dei Church, known locally as Old Swedes, is a historic church located in the Southwark neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at 929 South Water Street, bounded by Christian Street on the north, South Christopher Columbus Boulevard  on the east, and Washington Avenue on the south. It was built between 1698 and 1700, making it the oldest church in Pennsylvania and second oldest Swedish church in the United States after Holy Trinity Church  in Wilmington, Delaware.</p><br>
<p>The carpenters for the building were John Smart and John Buett The church displays the English vernacular style of church design, which combines elements of the Medieval and Gothic styles. The church&#39;s vestry and entranceway were added in 1703 to buttress the walls, which had begun to buckle under the weight of the roof. The tower was added c.1733, and interior alterations were made in 1845, designed by Samuel Sloan.</p><br>
<p>The congregation was established on Tinicum Island in 1646. It moved to its present site in 1677, five years before the founding of the city of Philadelphia, and the graveyard around the church to about the same time. Formerly a Swedish Lutheran congregation, the church has been Episcopalian since 1845.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Gloria Dei is the oldest church in Pennsylvania and second oldest Swedish church in the United States after Holy Trinity Church (Old Swedes) in Wilmington, Delaware. Swedish pioneers of New Sweden were the first to settle the area in 1646. An existing blockhouse at Wicaco (now South Philadelphia), had been renovated for worship in 1677 and was used until the present church (built beginning in 1698) was consecrated on the First Sunday after Trinity, June 2, 1700. Colonial painter Gustavus Hesselius was a member here.</p><br>
<p>In 1703, Gloria Dei was the site of the first regular Lutheran ordination in the Americas, that of Justus Falckner, a German theology student. Jenny Lind sang here during one of her American tours. Hanging in the center aisle is a Swedish chandelier given by famous Swedish artist Carl Milles. Recollections of many Swedish royal and episcopal visits are treasured memories, including models of Fogel Grip and Kalmar Nyckel, the first Swedish ships to arrive in New Sweden.</p><br>
<p>The church has a collection of historical and religious artifacts the church has acquired over three centuries, including bronze crosses and 18th century Bibles in Swedish and English. In 1845, the formerly Swedish Lutheran congregation joined the Episcopal Church. Today the church is owned and maintained by its congregation of Episcopalians.</p><br>
<p>The church was designated a National Historic Site on November 17, 1942. It is an affiliated area of the National Park Service under Independence National Historical Park. The church site is owned and administered by the Corporation of Gloria Dei (Old Swedes&#39;) Church. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Swedish pastors</h2><br>
<p>Andreas Rudman, 1697-1702</p><br>
<p>Andreas Sandel, 1702-1719</p><br>
<p>Jonas Lidman, 1719-1730</p><br>
<p>Johan Eneberg, acting 1730-1733</p><br>
<p>Johannes Dylander, 1737-1741</p><br>
<p>Gabriel Näsman, 1743-1750</p><br>
<p>Olof Parlin, 1750-1757</p><br>
<p>Erik Nordenlind, acting 1757-1759</p><br>
<p>Carl Magnus Wrangel, 1759-1768</p><br>
<p>Anders Göransson, 1768-1779</p><br>
<p>Matthias Hultgren, 1779-1786</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Collin, 1786-1831</p><br>
<p>Source:</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>The church cemetery includes the following interments:</p><br>
<p>Johan Dylander, pastor 1737-1741</p><br>
<p>Sven Gunnarsson (d. 1678), one of the first buried at the church, a founding father of the New Sweden colony</p><br>
<p>John C. Hunterson (1841-1927), American Civil War soldier and Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>William Irvine (1741–1804), American Revolutionary War officer and physician</p><br>
<p>Amandus Johnson (1877–1974), Swedish-American scholar and founder of the American Swedish Historical Museum</p><br>
<p>George Ord (1781–1866), ornithologist</p><br>
<p>Andreas Rudman, pastor 1698-1702</p><br>
<p>James Peale (1749–1831), American Revolutionary War officer, artist, and brother of Charles Willson Peale</p><br>
<p>Sarah Miriam Peale (1800–1885) portrait painter and daughter of James Peale</p><br>
<p>Peter Gunnarsson Rambo (1611–1698), Swedish immigrant who became known as "the Father of New Sweden"</p><br>
<p>Alexander Wilson (1766–1813), ornithologist and illustrator</p><br>
<p>Union Station is a former train station in Seattle, Washington, United States, constructed between 1910 and 1911 to serve the Union Pacific Railroad and the Milwaukee Road. It was originally named Oregon and Washington Station, after a subsidiary line of the Union Pacific. It serves today as the headquarters of Sound Transit, the public transit agency serving the city and metro area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Located at the corner of S. Jackson Street and 4th Avenue S. in the Pioneer Square neighborhood, the station opened on May 20, 1911. The Milwaukee Road discontinued passenger service to Union Station 50 years later, on May 22, 1961, and the Union Pacific followed suit on April 30, 1971. With no passenger rail service serving Seattle from Union Station, the building remained largely empty. An antique store filled the great hall for several years. After nearly 30 years of sitting idle, the station finally experienced an expansive renovation supported by Nitze-Stagen with financial backing from Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. The Union Station&#39;s renovation was the winner of the 2000 National Historic Preservation Award. The building has served as the headquarters of Sound Transit since 1999. Its grand hall is available to the public as a venue for weddings and other events.</p><br>
<p>In Seattle, the term Union Station refers not only to the main station building, but also to the</p><br>
<p>several adjacent office buildings at 505, 605, 625 and 705 5th Avenue South. Amazon.com was a major tenant of these properties from 2000 to 2011, all but one owned by Opus Northwest, and the other by Vulcan. The entire complex is earthquake-proofed by an underground ring of rubber.</p><br>
<p>The remaining passenger train service to Seattle (Amtrak long-distance trains and Sounder commuter trains) operates from King Street Station, located one block to the west of Union Station. The International District/Chinatown station of the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel is located directly adjacent to Union Station, mostly below street level. It opened in 1990 by Metro Transit to serve buses and was renovated in the 2000s to also accommodate Link light rail trains on Sound Transit&#39;s 1 Line. Union Station is proposed as the site of a second light rail station for the Ballard Link Extension, which would be constructed under 4th Avenue under one proposal.</p><br>
<p>It was used as the Teikoku train station in the pilot episode of The Man in the High Castle.</p><br>
<p>The New Haven Lawn Club is a private social club located on Whitney Avenue in New Haven, Connecticut, close to Yale University. Founded in 1891, the club is today considered one of the most prestigious in the area. Its facilities offer tennis, squash, and outdoor swimming.</p><br>
<p>The clubhouse, built in 1931 to replace a former clubhouse that burned in 1929, is credited to architect Douglas W. Orr, but much of the detail design is by William Douglas. One building and one structure of the club are deemed contributing to the historic character while another building and three structures are non-contributing.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Club was founded in 1891 by a group of New Haven residents. After the original clubhouse was destroyed by fire in 1929, Douglas Orr designed the current facility.</p><br>
<p>It originally hosted lawn tennis, now more commonly known as court tennis, reflecting a fad brought from England.</p><br>
<p>As of 2005, more than 520 families were members.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>The New Haven Lawn Club offers a wide range of activities and events including tennis, swimming, food, art exhibits, concerts, book clubs, yoga and pilates. The Club is also a venue for many of New Haven&#39;s prestigious dances.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>Visitors enter the foyer through a vaulted portico, archways, and columns made of the local red brick. Octagonal windows look out over the tended Lawn Club grounds. A Lalique crystal chandelier is in the foyer. Working fireplaces are found throughout the building. The New Haven Lawn Club has several event rooms.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Ballroom, is the club&#39;s largest event space and with a 225-person occupancy. The Ballroom has a barrel-vaulted ceiling, a performance stage, and hardwood floors. The event space includes a terrazzo entryway and fireplace.</p><br>
<p>The club&#39;s main dining room seats 120 people. Two wood-burning fireplaces mirror each other at opposite ends of the hall, with terrazzo flooring between them. Floor-to-ceiling windows offer views of the Lawn Club grounds and the attached terrace overlooks the tennis courts.</p><br>
<p>The Southwestern Brewery and Ice Company is a historic brewery in Albuquerque, New Mexico, located adjacent to the BNSF railroad tracks in East Downtown. Built in 1899, it is one of the only surviving 19th-century commercial buildings in the downtown area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Southwestern Brewery was founded in 1888 by Don and Harry Rankin, and later taken over by Jacob and Henry Loebs. By the start of the 20th century it was one of Albuquerque&#39;s largest employers and its flagship product, Glorieta Beer, was distributed throughout the southwest. The statewide enactment of Prohibition in 1917 forced the company out of the brewing business, but its ice-making operations remained profitable. The facility changed hands several times starting in 1948, but continued to produce ice for most of the 20th century. It finally closed in 1997.</p><br>
<p>The brewery was added to the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties in 1975 and the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. In 1998, the former cold storage and mechanical building on the south side of the complex was destroyed by a fire that also slightly damaged the main brewery building.</p><br>
<p>The Lower East Side Tenement Museum is a museum and National Historic Site located at 97 and 103 Orchard Street in the Lower East Side neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City, United States. The museums two historical tenement buildings were home to an estimated 15,000 people, from over 20 nations, between 1863 and 2011. The museum, which includes a visitors center, promotes tolerance and historical perspective on the immigrant experience.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building at 97 Orchard Street was contracted by Prussian-born immigrant Lukas Glockner in 1863 and was modified several times to conform with the New York State Tenement House Act. When first constructed, it contained 22 apartments and a basement level saloon. Over time, four stoop-level and two basement apartments were converted into commercial retail space, leaving 16 apartments in the building. Modifications over the years included the installation of indoor plumbing (cold running water, two toilets per floor), an air shaft, and gas followed by electricity. In 1935, rather than continuing to modify the building, the landlord evicted the residents, boarded the upper windows, and sealed the upper floors, leaving only the stoop-level and basement storefronts open for business. No further changes were made until the Lower East Side Tenement Museum became involved with the building in 1988. As such, the building stands as a kind of time capsule, reflecting 19th and early 20th century living conditions and the changing notions of what constitutes acceptable housing. Thanks to extensive restoration over many years (overseen in phases by Perkins Eastman and Li/Saltzman Architects) visitors can explore two different buildings—97 and 103 Orchard Street—and view recreated apartments that represent eras across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.</p><br>
<p>The Tenement Museum was founded in 1988 by Ruth J. Abram and Anita Jacobson. The museums first key property, the tenement at 97 Orchard Street, was designated a National Historic Landmark on April 19, 1994. The National Historic Site was authorized on November 12, 1998. It is an affiliated area of the National Park Service but is owned and administered by the Lower East Side Tenement Museum. The site received a Save Americas Treasures matching grant for $250,000 in 2000 for preservation work. In 2001 the museum was awarded the Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence silver medal. In 2005, the museum was among 406 New York City arts and social service institutions to receive part of a $20 million grant from the Carnegie Corporation, which was made possible through a donation by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg. The National Defense Authorization Act for the 2015 fiscal year expanded the National Historic Site designation to also include the tenement at 103 Orchard Street.</p><br>
<p>The Tenement Museum attracted some negative press in 2007 related to its employees seeking union membership as well as for its planned acquisition of the building at 99 Orchard Street through eminent domain in 2002.</p><br>
<p>The current president of the museum is Dr. Annie Polland, who took over the role from Dr. Morris Vogel in 2021.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibits, collections, and programs</h2><br>
<p>The museums exhibits and programs include restored period room apartments and shops open daily for public tours, depicting the lives of immigrants who lived at 97 Orchard Street between 1869 and 1935 and 103 Orchard Street from the 1950s to the 1980s. The museum also provides a documentary film and offers tours with costumed interpreters for portraying the buildings former residents, tastings of their communities typical foods, and neighborhood walks. The museums tours place the immigrants&#39; lives in the broader context of American history. The museum also has an extensive collection of historical archives and provides a variety of educational programs.</p><br>
<p>An exhibition titled "Under One Roof" opened in December 2017. Located at 103 Orchard Street, above the Visitor&#39;s Center, the exhibition explores the lives of a Holocaust refugee family, a Puerto Rican migrant family, and a Chinese immigrant family.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 2021, the Tenement Museum added "Reclaiming Black Spaces" to their list of available walking and virtual tours, educating visitors on Black experiences in the Lower East Side. This was inspired by a discovery in the museums collection regarding two men named Joseph Moore. These men were both residents of NYC, were about the same age, and worked in the same profession. Their biggest difference was one was a white Irishman and lived in the museums location at 97 Orchard Street, and the other was a Black man who lived in a nearby tenement house. The museum has recreated the kitchen of the Irish Joseph Moore, and they plan to open an apartment recreating the home of Joseph Moore and his family in 2022. This will be the first permanent apartment exhibit by the museum representing the Black experience.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The buildings comprising the Tenement Museum were influenced by the New York State Tenement House Acts of 1867, 1879, and 1901. The building at 97 Orchard Street was built prior to the passage of the 1867 act, which required at least one toilet for every 20 tenants, a connection to the city&#39;s sewage system, and a fire escape. As such, 97 Orchard was split into 20 apartments, each with three rooms; there was originally no running water, sewage system, or garbage disposal system. The rear units did not have any natural light or access to air, as was required of tenements built under the 1879 act. To comply with the 1901 act (which required buildings to include running water, gas, light, and ventilation), some of the partition walls were retrofitted with windows, and toilets and air shafts were built.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Lower East Side Tenement Museum has been featured in several films, including Crossing Delancey (1988) and The Definition of Insanity (2004), where the museum was used as setting for the interior hospital sequences. It was spoofed in a 2017 SNL skit, where host Louis C. K. together with Kate McKinnon played Polish immigrants making ethnic jokes against Italians. The museum also made a brief appearance in the Netflix original series Dash & Lily (2020), where it is the exterior backdrop while Lily skips down the street at the beginning of episode 2, season 1.</p><br>
<p>Buffalo City Hall is the seat for municipal government in the City of Buffalo, New York. Located at 65 Niagara Square, the 32-story Art Deco building was completed in 1931 by Dietel, Wade & Jones.</p><br>
<p>The 398 ft building is one of the largest and tallest municipal buildings in the United States and is also one of the tallest buildings in Western New York. It was designed by chief architect John Wade with the assistance of George Dietel. The friezes were sculpted by Albert Stewart and the sculpture executed by Rene Paul Chambellan. The foyer features a bronze tablet honoring Mayor Roesch, created in 1937 by regional sculptor, William Ehrich.</p><br>
<p>Buffalo City Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. It is located within the Joseph Ellicott Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Previous buildings</h3><br>
<p>In 1851, the city bought the property at the northwest corner of Church and Franklin streets in Buffalo to be used for the Mayor&#39;s office and other city offices. On this site, and constructed between 1871 and 1875, the city built a monumental granite structure designed by Rochester architect Andrew Jackson Warner (1833–1910). The building, now known as the Old County Hall, has four floors and a large, seven-story clock tower. It held offices for both the City of Buffalo and Erie County.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Buffalo Common Council decided, in light of the fact that the population of the city had quadrupled since the construction of County and City Hall forty-five years earlier, that a new building was needed to house the city government of Buffalo. Niagara Square was chosen as it is one of the central components of Joseph Ellicotts original plan of 1804, laid out for the City of Buffalo. From this location, one can see the waterways of Lake Erie and the shores of Ontario in Canada as well as the rest of downtown Buffalo. On September 16, 1929, construction of the new City Hall began and the building was ultimately completed on November 10, 1931 with the dedication taking place the following summer, on July 1, 1932, commemorating the citys Centennial celebration.</p><br>
<p>When the new City Hall opened and the city offices moved to the present building, the former 1875 County and City Hall became Erie County court offices. It is also the home of the Erie County Clerk&#39;s office, where important county records are kept.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>City Hall was built by the John W. Cowper Company, the same firm who built the Statler Hotel and the Buffalo Athletic Club, also on Niagara Square. The cost of building City Hall was $6,851,546.85 ($ in dollars) including the architect&#39;s fees, making it one of the costliest city halls in the country.</p><br>
<p>City Hall has 32 stories, 26 of which offer usable office space. The total floor area is 566,313 ft&sup2; and the footprint of the site on Niagara Square is 71,700 ft&sup2;. There are 1,520 windows from the first to the 25th floor. A practical design feature is that all of them open inward, making window washers unnecessary. There are eight elevators to the 13th floor and four to the 25th floor. Curtis Elevator Company furnished the first elevators, with additional elevators supplied later by Otis Elevator Company.</p><br>
<p>There are 5,000 electrical outlets, 5,400 electrical switches and 21 motor driven ventilation fans. Approximately 110 mi of copper wire weighing 43 tons, and 47 mi or 180 tons of conduit pipe, serve the building, as well as 26 mi or five car loads of underfoot conduit. There are either 138 or 143 clocks (counts vary) regulated by a master clock in the basement and 37 fire alarm stations distributed throughout the building.</p><br>
<p>It was originally equipped with 375 telephones and a master switchboard. External illumination was provided from dusk to midnight by 369 flood lights with an average candlepower of 350.</p><br>
<p>City Hall was designed and built with a non-powered air-conditioning system, taking advantage of strong prevailing winds from Lake Erie. Large vents were placed on the west side of the building to catch wind, which would then travel down ducts to beneath the basement, to be cooled by the ground. This cooled air was then vented throughout the building. Winds off the lake were usually strong enough to power air through this system.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 2006, Buffalo City Hall started undergoing renovations from the 13th floor all the way to the top as the flood lights were replaced; three years later, it was the south wing that started undergoing renovations of its own. Renovations were completed by 2009.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In the American television series Avenue 5, Buffalo City Hall is the new White House.</p><br>
<h3>Folklore</h3><br>
<p>In 2018, an urban legend emerged, claiming that a fire broke out at City Hall at an unspecified time in the 19th or 20th centuries and all of the records that were housed in there at the time had been destroyed. Local historians later debunked the claim as false.</p><br>
<p>The University of Kansas Natural History Museum is part of the University of Kansas Biodiversity Institute, a KU designated research center dedicated to the study of the life of the planet.</p><br>
<p>The museums galleries are in Dyche Hall on the universitys main campus in Lawrence, Kansas. The galleries are open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Tuesday through Saturday and noon to 4 p.m. on Sundays. Dyche Hall has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since July 14, 1974; it was listed for its connection with Lewis Lindsay Dyche and for its distinctive Romanesque style of architecture. The exterior is constructed of local Oread Limestone, while the window facings, columns, arches, and grotesques are carved from Cottonwood Limestone. Dyche Hall is also the site of one of only three Victory Eagle statues in Kansas, once used as markers on the Victory Highway.</p><br>
<p>Among its more than 350 separate exhibits, the museum is famous for its Panorama of North American Wildlife, part of which represented Kansas in the 1893 World&#39;s Colombian Exposition in Chicago, and was the impetus for the funding and construction of Dyche Hall and its Natural History Museum between 1901 and 1903. Modeled after a church in France, Dyche Hall was designed to house the Panorama in the "apse" of the entrance gallery. The museum is also renowned for Comanche, the only survivor on the USA Cavalry side of the Battle of the Little Bighorn; for its extensive exhibits of plesiosaurs, mosasaurs, pterosaurs, and other fossils from the Kansas Chalk; and most recently for its newest displays of mammalian skulls, the parasites of sharks and rays, and the pre-Columbian archaeology of Costa Rica.</p><br>
<p>The Biodiversity Institute, with more than 10 million specimens of plants, animals, fossils, and archaeological artifacts, is one of the worlds leaders in collection-based studies of systematics, evolution, phylogenetics, paleobiology, past cultures, biodiversity modeling, and in providing digital access to collection-based biodiversity data biodiversity informatics, including deploying these data for forecasting environmental phenomena. The Institutes collections, faculty-curators, staff and students are housed in six buildings across the KU campus, with the most recent expansion occurring in 2006–2007, when the Division of Entomology, along with parts of the ornithological and mammal collection, were moved to a new facility on the university&#39;s West Campus.</p><br>
<p>Jones Motor Company is a historic USA Route 66-era building in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Built in 1939, on Central Avenue in the Nob Hill neighborhood of Albuquerque, the building originally housed Ralph Jones&#39; service station and Ford Motor Company car dealership. It was designed by Tom Danahy in the Streamline Moderne style, with curved garage bays surmounted by a central stepped tower.</p><br>
<p>Jones Motor Company was added to the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties and the National Register of Historic Places in 1993, and was designated as a protected city landmark in 2001. In 2000 it was restored and converted into Kelly&#39;s Brew Pub after lying empty for many years. It also houses a Cold Stone Creamery location.</p><br>
<p>The Jefferson Davis Monument State Historic Site is a Kentucky state park commemorating the birthplace of Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederate States of America, in Fairview, Kentucky. The site&#39;s focal point is a 351 ft concrete obelisk. In 1973, it was believed to be the fourth-tallest monument in the United States and the tallest concrete-cast one.</p><br>
<h2>History of the monument</h2><br>
<p>Simon Bolivar Buckner, Sr., a Confederate general, first proposed the idea of a monument for Davis during a reunion of the Orphan Brigade of the Confederate Army in 1907. Construction began in 1917 but stopped in 1918 at a height of 175 ft due to building material rationing during World War I. Construction resumed in January 1922 and was finished in 1924 at a cost of $200,000. To mark the occasion of its completion, the Ku Klux Klan burned a cross from the top of the monument. The monument&#39;s base was set on limestone bedrock and limestone was quarried on the site for use in its construction. The concrete walls are 8.5 ft thick at the base and taper to 2.5 ft thick at the top. The monument was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. The obelisk was closed to the public from 1999 until May 2004 for renovations and construction of a new visitor center. At the top of the monument is an observation room with a window in each of the four walls. Originally, this room could only be reached by climbing stairs which went around the interior of the monument; an elevator, installed in 1929, now takes visitors to and from the observation room.</p><br>
<h2>Park details</h2><br>
<p>The Jefferson Davis State Historic Site is one of eleven historic sites in Kentucky which include small parks and are maintained by the Kentucky Department of Parks. The park covers 19 acre and includes open and covered picnic areas and a playground.</p><br>
<p>At the visitors center museum, visitors can watch a video describing Davis life and the construction of the monument. Guided elevator tours of the monument are available daily.</p><br>
<p>The center sells books and memorabilia about Davis, the American Civil War, and the surrounding area, as well as Kentucky handcrafts. The park is open from May 1 until October 31.</p><br>
<h2>Monument size</h2><br>
<p>The monument is the tallest unreinforced concrete structure in the world. No steel was used to reinforce the concrete walls below its pyramidal top. As one pour was completed, large chunks of limestone were left projecting up to connect it to the next pour above. It is also the tallest concrete obelisk in the world.</p><br>
<p>It is the fifth tallest monument in the United States, behind the Gateway Arch at 630 ft, the San Jacinto Monument at 567 ft, the Washington Monument at 555 ft, and the Perrys Victory and International Peace Memorial at 352 ft. The Crazy Horse Memorial, not yet completed, has a planned height of 563 ft. Elsewhere in the world, the Great Pyramid of Giza, Khafres Pyramid, Spring Temple Buddha, and Ushiku Daibutsu are taller monuments.</p><br>
<p>The Belmont–Sheffield Trust and Savings Bank Building is a historic building built in 1928 and located at 1001 W. Belmont Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, United States. It is listed as one of the National Register of Historic Places since 1984.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The six-story building was designed by architect John A. Nyden. It was constructed in a U-shape around a two-story central atrium, which allowed light to reach the bank lobby—the glass atrium has since been roofed over.</p><br>
<p>When the building was first completed, it held the Belmont–Sheffield Trust and Savings Bank on the first floor and part of the second; offices on the rest of the second floor and on the third floor; and the Montfield Hotel (address 3146 N. Sheffield) on floors four through six. However, the bank closed on June 24, 1932, due to financial difficulty following the Great Depression. The bank portion of the building then remained vacant until World War II, when local rationing board 40-46 took over the space. The building also housed the Lake View Citizens&#39; Council in the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>It struggled with vacancy until 1984, when a developer received a federal loan to convert the Montfield Hotel into 54 apartments, maintaining stores on the ground floor. The building was sold again to another developer and the upper floors converted into loft condos in 2005, which are now listed at the address 3150 N. Sheffield. In 2008, the Commission on Chicago Landmarks designated the building a landmark along with 15 other neighborhood bank buildings.</p><br>
<p>The Gold Dome, a geodesic dome in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, is a landmark on Route 66. It was built in 1958 and is located at the intersection of NW 23rd Street and North Classen Boulevard. It was declared eligible to be listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>In 1958, the Citizens State Bank began construction. The Gold Dome building was the fifth geodesic dome constructed in the world and the first to be used as a bank. It was described as “one of the nation’s most revolutionary bank designs.” Using the geodesic dome design created by futurist and architect Buckminster Fuller, the architects for the Citizens State Bank, Bailey, Bozalis, Dickinson, and Roloff of Oklahoma City created this unusual Oklahoma City landmark. The dome is constructed of 625 panels, ranging in size from 7.5 to 11.5 ft in length, 60 – 70 pounds in weight each, and spanning a diameter of 145 ft. The interior covers about 27,000 square feet.1 The Gold Dome bank was an approximately $1 million investment.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1998, the Oklahoma City Government pursued a new zoning area along NW 23rd Street, including the area where the Gold Dome is located in order to preserve the unique architecture and “commercial nature” of NW 23rd Street, the former path of Route 66 through central Oklahoma City. Twenty-third Street is located between the urban conservation districts of the Paseo and Jefferson Park to the north, and the historic preservation districts of Mesta Park and Heritage Hills to the South. The new zoning area would require property owners to gain permission from a design review board before demolishing or modifying buildings in this area.</p><br>
<p>In July 2001 Bank One, which owned the Gold Dome building, applied to the Urban Design Commission (the result of 1998 efforts) for permission to demolish the building. The bank stated that the structure was too large to serve as a bank and refurbishing it would be too costly (Bank One estimated it would cost roughly $1.7 million). The bank intended to sell the property to Walgreens, which would place the new pharmacy across the street from its competitor, Eckerd.</p><br>
<p>A group organized to save the Gold Dome, "Citizens for the Golden Dome", appealed to the Bank One president, urging him not only to save the building in deference to its unique history and contribution to the "urban character" of OKC, but to also apply for landmark zoning from the OKC Historic Preservation and Landmark Commission, and apply for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In August 2001, the Bank One president offered different alternatives to demolition of the building, including constructing a smaller building on a portion of the property to serve as the Bank One location next door to the gold dome building. The president left a sixty-day window for prospective buyers interested in saving the building to come forward, but did not state what would happen if no one offered to buy the building.</p><br>
<p>The State Historic Preservation Office declared the building eligible for landmark status, although usually reserved for buildings at least 50 years old.</p><br>
<p>A Bethany company, Blue Stuff, seemed to be the only viable hope for preservation of the Gold Dome. Blue Stuff planned to move into the building, having outgrown its own location. The company&#39;s spokesman did not feel the Gold Dome would be as costly to repair as Bank One claimed.</p><br>
<p>Efforts to save the Gold Dome included picketing and marches, but in September 2001, a couple extended the efforts by writing a song.</p><br>
<p>By December 2001, after several reprieves by the bank president, the time allotted by Bank One for buyers wanting to preserve the Gold Dome to come forward was up. However, the Bank One officials agreed once again to extend the postponement of demolition until January. Bank One stated they were open to other alternatives, but would have to go forward with plans to sell the building to Walgreens if a buyer did not come forward. Bank One even offered to help save the actual dome and have it transplanted to another site.</p><br>
<p>An ownership group was formed, Gold Dome LLC, to take over financing of the building to save it.</p><br>
<p>As of April 2011, Gold Dome owner an optometrist named Irene Lam had not maintained payment on the loans secured by the Oklahoma City council through United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) for the building. On 12 April 2011 the Oklahoma City council voted to take over responsibility to pay back the loan to HUD.</p><br>
<p>Irene Lam fell behind on her property tax obligations, failing to fulfill nearly fifty thousand dollars in property tax obligations to the City of Oklahoma City and only repaying interest upon the federal loan. Bank 7 in Oklahoma City foreclosed on the property and The Gold Dome was put up for auction on 13 September 2012 David Box, a local OKC developer, purchased the Gold Dome at the public auction for $800,000. He claimed in September 2012 to have no plans to tear it down, but reversed this stance in March 2013, applying for a demolition permit for the historic structure which the city has refused to issue.</p><br>
<p>In June 2013, Edmond environmental engineering firm TEEMCO announced plans to renovate the Gold Dome and move its 65-person operation into the building. Changes to the building included large saltwater and freshwater fish tanks being placed in the lobby, as well as a digital touchscreen wall for guests to interact with. However, in March 2015, Gold Dome owner David Box announced that the property was back on the market after TEEMCO had fallen into financial distress with falling oil prices.</p><br>
<p>In May 2015, Land Run Commercial Properties purchased the building for $1.1 million. The new developers filed for a $2.5 million building permit in August 2016 to convert the building into a Natural Grocers store and preserve the dome.</p><br>
<p>Land Run Commercial Properties entered negotiations with TempleLive in 2021. The company operates live music venues at historic Masonic temples in Ohio, Arkansas, and Kansas and is examining the feasibility of converting the Gold Dome into a concert venue.</p><br>
<p>De Zwaan is an authentic Dutch windmill in the city of Holland, Michigan. The windmill&#39;s name is Dutch for The Swan or Graceful Bird. It is the oldest authentic, working Dutch windmill in the United States. De Zwaan is located in Windmill Island municipal park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>When Holland, Michigan residents Willard Wichers and Carter Brown were looking for a way to pay homage to the city&#39;s Dutch heritage, they began a project to bring a Dutch windmill to the United States. However, many of these monumental structures had suffered serious damage in World War II. As a result, the Dutch government had placed a ban on the sale of windmills outside the Netherlands. Wichers and his group were able to gain an exemption by selecting a heavily damaged mill known as De Zwaan that had been in operation in Vinkel Netherlands since being moved there in 1884 by a family named Van Schayk. De Zwaan was at the center of a controversy, with three local agencies unable to determine the future of the damaged windmill. The Dutch government decided to sell it to Wichers for $2800, making De Zwaan the last windmill to leave the Netherlands. Windmill authorities in the Netherlands provided the City of Holland with the history of De Zwaan, noting that it had been built in Krommenie, Netherlands, in 1761 as a grain mill set on a raised base to better capture the wind.</p><br>
<p>In October, 1964, De Zwaan arrived aboard the Prins Willem van Oranje. It was unloaded at the Muskegon harbor and transported by truck to Windmill Island in Holland. It took approximately 6 months to reconstruct the mill. The city erected a raised base rather than the mound of earth it had been set on in Vinkel so as to restore it to its original design when it stood in Krommenie. Once erected, the City of Holland celebrated as having been over 200 years old at the time.</p><br>
<p>In April 1965, the 125 ft windmill was formally dedicated on Windmill Island, a 36 acre site reclaimed from a swamp on the eastern end of Lake Macatawa. It is open from late April through early October.</p><br>
<p>When winds are favorable (15 to 20 mph from the west), De Zwaan&#39;s 80 ft diameter blades are usually in motion.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, the City of Holland celebrated the 50th anniversary of De Zwaan being in Holland. In preparation for the celebration, De Zwaans resident Miller and historian, Alisa Crawford, set out to author the only definitive book ever written about De Zwaan. Alisa Crawford holds a masters degree in museum studies and is the only Dutch certified miller in the United States, an accreditation she earned after years of independent study while working for the City of Holland at De Zwaan. In seeking data about De Zwaan&#39;s original construction, Crawford learned that the De Zwaan in Krommenie had been taken down in 1887, which was three years after De Zwaan had been relocated to Vinkel. She realized that there had, in fact, been at least two windmills in the Netherlands named De Zwaan.</p><br>
<p>Ultimately Crawford was able to prove the De Zwaan windmill moved to Holland, Michigan, had originally been erected in the city of Dordrecht in South Holland as a zaagmolen (sawmill) in 1833. The mill was converted to steam power in 1884 and its eight-sided body, cap, and blades become superfluous. At that point the Van Schayk family purchased it for relocation to Vinkel. They also purchased parts from a different mill, likely the Nooitgedacht (Never Thought) that had been built in 1800 in &#39;s-Hertogenbosch (now Den Bosch), and dismantled in 1883.</p><br>
<p>This information led to the understanding that De Zwaan was about 70 years younger than the City of Holland was led to believe when it acquired the windmill in 1964 and was a hybrid mill built from the structure and components from two to three other mills. Crawford notes "that lineage is what makes De Zwaan unequivocally authentic. Windmills were and continue to be working machines. When they break, they are repaired. When the parts wear out, they are replaced. When they became outmoded, they are repurposed."</p><br>
<p>There is, unfortunately, a lot of inaccurate information in newspapers published between 1964 and 2015 about the origins of De Zwaan. Additionally not all online sources have revised the original build date of De Zwaan.</p><br>
<h2>National Register of Historic Places</h2><br>
<p>After the publication of her book, Alisa Crawford wrote the nomination of De Zwaan to the National Register of Historic Places on behalf of the City of Holland. The mill was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2018.</p><br>
<p>The City of Holland erected a State Historic Marker at De Zwaan in 2019. The text on one side reads:</p><br>
<p>The New Orleans Cotton Exchange was established in New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1871 as a centralized forum for the trade of cotton. It operated in New Orleans until closing in 1964. Occupying several buildings over its history, its final location, the New Orleans Cotton Exchange Building, is now a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The New Orleans Cotton Exchange was conceived and financed by a group of cotton factors at a time when one-third of the entire production of cotton in the United States was sent through New Orleans. The Exchange sought to bring order to what was a highly speculative and often erratic cotton pricing system by providing a centralized trading office where people involved in the cotton business could obtain information about market conditions and prices. The Exchange also established standards for classification of cotton and facilitated payments between buyers and sellers.</p><br>
<p>The New York Cotton Exchange opened in 1870. Concerned that trading of cotton in New York would be more advantageous to buyers than sellers, and eager to modernize their operations, New Orleans merchants agreed to form their own exchange. Consequently, the New Orleans Cotton Exchange opened for business on February 20, 1871 at the corner of Gravier and Carondelet Streets, in an area already frequented by cotton merchants.</p><br>
<p>The Exchange was notable for developing advanced techniques for gathering information about various aspects of the cotton market. Led by Col. Henry G. Hester, for many years the secretary of the Exchange, reports were compiled and then transmitted by telegraph, a novel method at the time. Col. Hester also brought the practice of futures trading to the Exchange. These advanced business methods benefited the local cotton market greatly, so much so that it "enabled New Orleans to regain its position as the primary spot market of the world and to become a leading futures market, outranked only by Liverpool and New York."</p><br>
<p>Later years saw the decline of the Exchange as the outlawing of slavery, fluctuating market conditions, government regulations, price supports, the decline of cotton in the South, and various other factors conspired to shrink the Southern cotton market drastically. The Exchange closed in 1964. A handful of attempts were made in later years to restart a similar exchange, but none were successful.</p><br>
<h2>The building</h2><br>
<p>The Exchange had its 1871 opening in a series of rented rooms in an existing building at Gravier and Carondelet streets. Although they moved several times, the Exchange did not leave this intersection until its closing in 1964. After constructing and then outgrowing a small building nearby on Gravier, the Exchange built a palatial Second Empire building in 1881, at the northern corner of Gravier and Carondelet. Noted for its lavish interiors, the building soon became a landmark in the city.</p><br>
<p>However, in 1916, the building was deemed unsafe, and planning began for a replacement. World War I and several other factors conspired to delay the construction of the replacement until 1920, and the original plans for an equally lavish replacement building were scaled back.</p><br>
<p>The resulting structure was much more modest, modeled after a Renaissance palazzo; the architects were Favrot and Livaudais. The Cotton Exchange occupied this building until its 1964 closure, selling the building in 1962 and merely renting space for the last two years of operation.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, and further has been named a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>In early 2023, a group of investors who are also clients acquired the first two floors of the cotton exchange building, where JECohen Headquarters is the anchor tenant on the second floor. The first floor is currently under construction and being repositioned for either a new retail or restaurant tenant later this year.</p><br>
<h2>Degas painting</h2><br>
<p>The renowned French artist Edgar Degas painted the picture of a cotton office, seen here, in 1873 while visiting his mother&#39;s Louisiana relatives.</p><br>
<p>Although certain sources label the painting as depicting the Cotton Exchange, the setting of the painting is actually the office of a cotton factor in a nearby building known as "Factors&#39; Row."</p><br>
<p>Dumbarton House is a Federal style house located in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. It was completed around 1800. Its first occupant was Joseph Nourse, the first Register of the Treasury. Dumbarton House, a federal period historic house museum, stands on approximately an acre of gardens on the northern edge of Georgetown, District of Columbia. The house is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Displaying a fine collection of period decorative arts , it gives the visitor a concrete sense of a substantial private residence in the early 1800s.</p><br>
<p>Constructed in 1798–99, the house was a private residence until The National Society of The Colonial Dames of America (NSCDA) purchased it for its headquarters in 1928 and gave it the name it has today. In addition to meeting its administrative needs, the NSCDA wanted to illustrate domestic life in Georgetown in the early federal period. To achieve this, its two principal floors were opened to the public as a house museum in 1932, on the 200th anniversary of the birth of George Washington.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Dumbarton House was built by Samuel Jackson, a Philadelphia merchant, just before the Federal government moved from Philadelphia to the newly established national capital of Washington, a separate town in the District of Columbia. However, Jackson and his family lived there only briefly and the mortgage he had given, and then title to the property, soon passed to the United States. In 1804, the property was purchased at auction by Joseph Nourse, the first Register of the United States Treasury. An advertisement for the upcoming sale described the interior of the house in some detail:</p><br>
<p>"... a large-two story brick house with a passage through the center, four rooms on a floor & good cellars. The front rooms are about 17 by 18 feet – the back rooms are semicircular and are about 22 by 17 feet – the passage is 9 feet wide and 38 feet long – two brick offices are two stories high 17 feet 6 inches square & are connected with the House by covered ways...."</p><br>
<p>In 1813, the Nourses sold the property to Charles Carroll of Belle Vue. (He was a cousin of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, signer of the Declaration of Independence.) The purchaser was also a friend of President James Madison and his wife Dolley. It is this “Mr. Carroll” to whom Dolley is referring in her famous letter describing the events of August 24, 1814, the day the British burned the "President&#39;s House" in the War of 1812. "... Our kind friend, Mr. Carroll, has come to hasten my departure, and is in very bad humor with me because I insist on waiting until the large picture of Gen. Washington is secured, and it requires to be unscrewed from the wall.... " When Dolley was finally satisfied that the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington was safe, she came to Dumbarton House, as Mr. Carroll told her the President had requested, to await further word on where the couple should meet.</p><br>
<p>According to census records, between 1785 and 1840, both enslaved and "free colored males and females" worked at Dumbarton House. At least 10 to 13 enslaved or indentured people worked at the property. Some of them are known by name; an enslaved Black woman named Dinah; an enslaved Black man named Bacchus; a woman named Jane whose race is unknown; a cobbler named Juba; a "man servant" named Frank; and a woman named Fran who helped Dinah in the kitchen. Betsy, Polly, Will, and "Black Peter" are mentioned in passing.</p><br>
<h2>20th century</h2><br>
<p>Another dramatic event in the house&#39;s history occurred in 1915. By that time, Georgetown and Washington had been merged into a single political entity, although physically separated by Rock Creek. To facilitate traffic between the two communities, a new bridge was to be constructed, joining the segments of Q Street lying on opposite sides of Rock Creek and continuing Q Street to westward to Wisconsin Avenue. However, at that time, Dumbarton House was positioned approximately 50–60 feet to the south of its present location – right in the middle of Q Street. The owners had only two choices – move the house or demolish it. Since the center portion of the house had a full basement, it was jacked up, "... hoisted onto rollers, one animal, whether a horse or a mule has never been established, was attached to a windlass, and slowly it was hauled back..." and placed on a new foundation. "Its wings had no cellars so they were dismantled and then rebuilt."</p><br>
<p>In 1932 when Dumbarton House first opened, it was furnished with donated pieces dating generally to the revolutionary and federal periods (1790s through 1820), although occasionally earlier and sometimes later. The house is currently undergoing reinstallation and refurnishing to more accurately reflect the years of the Nourse residence (1804–13). In 2006, the Dumbarton House Board commissioned an in-depth study of the Nourses furnishings and decorative style. Information was drawn from Nourse family correspondence and Joseph Nourses account books. Gaps in the picture were filled with data from inventories of the same period and locale, newspapers advertisements, and paintings and prints. The results of the study, properly called a Historic Furnishings Plan, are in the process of being implemented.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, the Belin family, owners of the neighboring estate, Evermay, gave the NSCDA the property lying directly to the east and adjacent to Dumbarton House. Subsequently, noted Virginia landscape architect M. Meade Palmer designed the East Garden, and in 2010, Georgetown landscape architect Guy Williams of DCA Landscape Architects, Inc., created and supervised the installation of an herb garden within the East Garden.</p><br>
<p>Today, Dumbarton House offers both guided and self-guided tours, as well as concerts, lectures, special exhibitions, and other cultural events. It also has a large ballroom opening onto a walled terrace, providing a site that can be rented for weddings or other events.</p><br>
<p>The Old West Church is a historic United Methodist Church at 131 Cambridge Street in the West End of Boston, Massachusetts. It was built in 1806 to designs by architect Asher Benjamin, and is considered one of his finest works. It is a monumentally-scaled example of ecclesiastical Federal architecture, whose design was widely copied throughout New England.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The first church on this site was built in 1737 as a wood-frame building, and was occupied as a barracks by British troops during their occupation of the city prior to the American Revolution. The British destroyed its tower in 1775 when they suspected that American Colonials were signaling to Cambridge from the spire.</p><br>
<p>In 1806 the congregation commissioned Asher Benjamin to design a new church building. As in the architects earlier Charles Street Meeting House (1804), its -story brick entry tower is crowned with a cupola; the whole tower projects outward somewhat from the church hall behind. Four shallow brick pilasters, each two stories high and trimmed with white wood, separate the three entry doors. Each door is echoed by a window above it. The towers third story is outfitted with pairs of Doric pilasters. On the final half-story beneath the cupola are clocks on each face of the tower, each adorned with a light swag. On the back wall, the original central pulpit window has been filled in with brickwork.</p><br>
<p>Old Wests preaching played a major role in American history. Jonathan Mayhew, the churchs second Congregational pastor, spoke out as early as 1750 about the right of removing tyrannical leaders. His preaching is considered by some to be theologically radical, although other scholars maintain that Mayhew preserved many conservative Puritan theological and political themes. Some Unitarians believe Mayhew was a predecessor to later liberal ministers like William Ellery Channing in his exposition of anti-trinitarian views; however, Mayhew explicitly denied Unitarianism and it would be inaccurate and anachronistic to impose that later label on him. By the early 19th century, Unitarianism had found its way into 9 of Boston&#39;s original 13 orthodox Congregational churches. Other notable pastors included Charles Lowell, and Cyrus Augustus Bartol.</p><br>
<p>The church was originally and for 150 years Congregational. Between 1894 and 1960 the building served as a branch of the Boston Public Library. Since 1961, the building has been owned by the United Methodist Church.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architectural significance.</p><br>
<p>There are three houses named the Harrison Gray Otis House in Boston, Massachusetts. All were built by noted American architect Charles Bulfinch for the same man, Federalist lawyer and politician Harrison Gray Otis.</p><br>
<h2>First Harrison Gray Otis House</h2><br>
<p>The first Otis house, built in 1796, is located at 141 Cambridge Street, next to the Old West Church in Boston&#39;s West End. It is now a National Historic Landmark, and a historic house museum owned and operated by Historic New England, which also uses part of it as its administrative headquarters.</p><br>
<h2>Second Harrison Gray Otis House</h2><br>
<p>The Second Harrison Gray Otis House is located at 85 Mount Vernon Street. It is a large, square, Federal-style mansion in densely developed Beacon Hill, built in 1800–1802. It is three stories in height, with brick walls laid in Flemish bond, and is set on a parcel with a relatively ample lawn, and a semicircular cobblestone drive, the latter a rare surviving remnant of the original vision for the development of Beacon Hill by the Mount Vernon Proprietors. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.</p><br>
<p>In this house Bulfinch has made the first floor with his characteristic recessed brick arches, here ornamented with Chinese fretwork balconies in iron. The facade has four bays, with somewhat odd use of Corinthian pilasters on the 2nd and 3rd floors. There is a roof balustrade and a largish, octagonal cupola. Otis lived here until 1806.</p><br>
<p>The house was portrayed as the home of Thomas Crown (Steve McQueen) in the original Thomas Crown Affair film.</p><br>
<p>It also served as Thomas Banacek&#39;s home (George Peppard) in the TV show Banacek (1972-74).</p><br>
<h2>Third Harrison Gray Otis House</h2><br>
<p>The Third Harrison Gray Otis House is located at 45 Beacon Street. Completed in 1806, it is now the home of the American Meteorological Society. This is the last and largest of the houses, also built in the Federal style, and the residence of Otis until his death in 1848. Its four stories are organized into five bays. The center entrance has a small, rectangular portico with delicate pairs of Ionic fluted columns. The modest ground floor, now faced in stone, originally had the recessed brick arches typical of Bulfinch houses. When built, the house was freestanding, surrounded by the Boston Common and English gardens.</p><br>
<p>Mesa Verde Administrative District is a set of six National Park Service buildings within Mesa Verde National Park, constructed between 1921 and 1927 in the Pueblo Revival style. Located on Chapin Mesa, these were the structures built by the Park Service to use culturally relevant architectural traditions in park architecture. The buildings were declared a National Historic Landmark District in 1987.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mesa Verde National Park was founded in 1906 to preserve a series of spectacular Ancestral Puebloan ruins and archaeological sites in southwestern Colorado. The National Park Service was founded in 1916 to manage the nation&#39;s growing inventory of national parks. It did not begin significant oversight of Mesa Verde until 1921, when archaeologist Jesse Nussbaum took over its administration. During his tenure (which lasted until 1931), the buildings described below were built on Chapin Mesa to support the administration of the park.</p><br>
<p>The buildings share a common architectural vocabulary, which includes the use of sandstone, some of which was taken from some of the park&#39;s prehistoric structures. The walls typically have a battered exterior, and are covered by a roof supported by vigas. Woodwork in the buildings is worked to appear as if it had been fashioned using pioneer tools, and the interior walls are plastered.</p><br>
<p>The landmark buildings include:</p><br>
<p>National Park Headquarters, 1923</p><br>
<p>Chapin Mesa Museum, 1923–24</p><br>
<p>Post Office, 1923</p><br>
<p>Ranger Dormitory, 1925</p><br>
<p>Superintendents Residence, 1921</p><br>
<p>Community Building, 1927</p><br>
<p>Most of these buildings have undergone subsequent alteration and expansion, as the needs of the park administration have grown and changed. The buildings are clustered in a roughly 3 acre area on Chapin Mesa.</p><br>
<p>Carillon Historical Park is a 65-acre  park and museum in Dayton, Ohio, which contains historic buildings and exhibits concerning the history of technology and the history of Dayton and its residents from 1796 to the present. As a part of the University of Dayton, the historical elements of the park were the brainchild of Colonel Edward Deeds. The major sections include settlement, transportation, invention, and industry. The park also contains the Carillon Park Railroad, a gauge miniature railway.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, Carillon Historical Park merged with the Montgomery County Historical Society to form Dayton History.</p><br>
<h2>Kettering Family Education Center</h2><br>
<p>The Kettering Family Education Center anchors the park and features changing exhibits in the National City Exhibit Gallery, a video about the park, and gift and snack shops. There are also rooms for education presentations.</p><br>
<h2>Wright Brothers Aviation Center</h2><br>
<p>The John W. Berry Sr. Wright Brothers Aviation Center houses the 1905 Wright Flyer III, the world&#39;s first practical airplane. The airplane, a unit of Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, was restored from 1948 to 1950 with the initial consultation of Orville Wright before his 1948 death.</p><br>
<h2>Settlement exhibits</h2><br>
<h2>Transportation exhibits</h2><br>
<p>An original lock of the Miami and Erie Canal is located on the grounds, as is a canal toll office. The transportation center vehicles include the John Quincy Adams steam locomotive (built in 1835 by the B&O Railroad and is the oldest US-built locomotive that still exists), a Barney and Smith passenger car built in Dayton, a Conestoga wagon, a 1908 Stoddard-Dayton automobile, a 1915 Xenia cyclecar, an interurban railcar, and other vehicles associated with Dayton. Among the latter, added to the collection in 1988, is a 1949-built Marmon-Herrington trolley bus, which was number 515 in the fleet of the City Transit Company and provided service on the Dayton trolley bus system from 1949 until about 1982. It arrived at the museum in August 1988 and replaced a similar Marmon-Herrington trolley bus, ex-Dayton 501, that had been on display there since April 1988 but was then donated to the Cincinnati Transit Historical Association under an agreement in which Carillon Park received No. 515 from the Miami Valley Regional Transit Authority in exchange. The center also displays the final SUV made at the former General Motors Moraine Assembly, next to the first windshield made by Fuyao Glass America, which redeveloped the factory.</p><br>
<h2>Invention and industry</h2><br>
<p>Deeds Barn - features such inventions as a Liberty aircraft engine, early Frigidaire refrigerator, 1912 Cadillac with the Delco automobile electric system.</p><br>
<p>Print Shop - working 1930s print shop</p><br>
<p>Corliss Engine Building - houses the Corliss Engine that provided both electrical power and steam heat for the National Cash Register Company from 1902 to 1948.</p><br>
<h2>Deeds Carillon</h2><br>
<p>The park is named for the 151 ft Deeds Carillon. Colonel Edward Deeds, in whose name the bell tower was built, was a Dayton industrialist and innovator. The art moderne-style tower was built in 1942 and designed by New York architects Reinhard & Hofmeister. It was funded by Edward Deeds wife Edith Walton Deeds and was designed to commemorate the Deeds family. When the tower was built, each of 23 bells was inscribed with the name of a family member, with the “silent” bells bearing the names of deceased family members and ringing bells cast with the names of family members then living. Today, with 57 bells, the carillon is Ohios largest. The National Park Service listed the Deeds Carillon on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Carillon Park refurbished the carillon in 1988, converting it from an electric keyboard controlled instrument to a traditional, baton-keyboard mechanical carillon. The Park&#39;s carillonneur, Larry Weinstein, performs live carillon concerts every Sunday at 3:00 pm from May to October.</p><br>
<p>The Overseas Railroad  was an extension of the Florida East Coast Railway to Key West, a city located 128 mi beyond the end of the Florida peninsula. Work on the line started in 1905 and it operated from 1912 to 1935, when it was partially destroyed by the Labor Day Hurricane. Some of the remaining infrastructure was used for the Overseas Highway.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Henry Flagler (1830–1913) was a principal in Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler and later a founder of Standard Oil during the Gilded Age in the United States. The wealthy Flagler took an interest in Florida while seeking a warmer climate for his ailing first wife in the late 1870s. Returning to Florida in 1881, he became the builder and developer of resort hotels and railroads along the east coast of Florida.</p><br>
<p>Beginning with St. Augustine, he moved progressively south. Flagler helped develop Ormond Beach, Daytona Beach, and Palm Beach, and became known as the Father of Miami, Florida.</p><br>
<p>Flagler&#39;s rail network became known as the Florida East Coast Railway (FEC). By 1904, the FEC had reached Homestead, south of Miami.</p><br>
<h2>Key West Extension</h2><br>
<p>After the United States announced in 1905 the construction of the Panama Canal, Flagler became particularly interested in linking Key West to the mainland. Key West, the United States&#39; closest deep-water port to the Canal, could not only take advantage of Cuban and Latin American trade, but the opening of the Canal would allow significant trade possibilities with the West Coast.</p><br>
<p>Initially called "Flagler&#39;s Folly", the construction of the Overseas Railroad required many engineering innovations as well as vast amounts of labor and monetary resources. Once the decision was made to move forward with the project, Flagler sent his engineer William J. Krome to survey potential routes for the railroad. The initially favored route extended the railroad from Homestead southwest through the Everglades to Cape Sable, where it would then cross 25 mi of open water to Big Pine Key and then continue to Key West. However, it was quickly determined that it was more feasible to run the railroad south to Key Largo and follow the islands of the Florida Keys. Krome then surveyed routes to Key Largo, including one over Card Point (which would become the first roadway to the Keys) and Jewfish Creek, which was the selected route.</p><br>
<p>At one time during construction, four thousand men were employed. During the seven year construction, three hurricanes—one in 1906, 1909, and 1910—threatened to halt the project. The project cost was more than $50 million.</p><br>
<p>Despite the hardships, the final link of the Florida East Coast Railway to Trumbo Point in Key West was completed in 1912. In that year, a proud Henry Flagler rode the first train into Key West aboard his private railcar, marking the completion of the railroad&#39;s oversea connection to Key West and the linkage by railway of the entire east coast of Florida. It was widely known as the "Eighth Wonder of the World".</p><br>
<h2>Operations</h2><br>
<p>During its years of operation, freight traffic volume on the single-track overseas extension was disappointing, as the anticipated growth in Panama Canal cargo shipping through Key West failed to materialize. Local Key West and online freight consisted of coal, fruit, and building materials. Trains of tank cars brought potable water to Key West from mainland Florida.</p><br>
<p>Before the Great Depression hit, passenger traffic consisted of both local and long distance trains. In 1929, the Havana Special was the premier train, providing year-round coach and sleeping car service between New York and Key West, daily except Sundays, with connecting ferry service beyond to the Cuban capital. With speed restricted to 15 mph on the long bridges, it took a leisurely four and a half hours to travel the distance between Key West and Miami: northbound, the Havana Special departed Key West at 6 p.m., for a 10:45 p.m. departure from Miami. Another train, the Over-Sea, operated locally between Miami and Key West during daylight hours, leaving Miami at 11:05 a.m. and arriving at Key West 4:35 p.m. During the winter months, the Over-Sea consist included a deluxe parlor-observation car. It was a popular train for vacationers traveling to the various fishing camps in the Keys. The Caribbean Mail also operated over the line.</p><br>
<h2>Demise</h2><br>
<p>Much of the Overseas Railroad in the Middle Keys was heavily damaged and partially destroyed in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, a Category 5 hurricane which is often called "The Storm of the Century". The storm killed more than 400 people and devastated Long Key and adjacent areas. The FEC&#39;s Long Key Fishing Camp was destroyed, as was an FEC rescue train which, with the exception of steam locomotive 447, was overturned by the storm surge at Islamorada. Over 40 mi of track were washed away by the hurricane, two miles of which ended up washing ashore on the mainland at Cape Sable.</p><br>
<p>Already bankrupt, the Florida East Coast Railway was financially unable to rebuild the destroyed sections. The roadbed and remaining bridges were sold to the State of Florida, which built the Overseas Highway to Key West, using much of the remaining railway infrastructure. Many of the original bridges were replaced during the 1980s. The Overseas Highway (USA 1, which runs from Key West to Fort Kent, Maine) continues to provide a highway link to Key West. Many old concrete bridges of the Overseas Railroad remain in use as fishing piers and pedestrian paths called the Florida Keys Overseas Heritage Trail.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 as Overseas Highway and Railway Bridges.</p><br>
<p>Anderson Hall is the central administration building for Kansas State University in the city of Manhattan, Kansas, United States. Designed by Erasmus T. Carr, it was originally called the Practical Agriculture Building when the first wing  was completed in 1879. In 1902, it was renamed "Anderson Hall" in honor of John Alexander Anderson, the second president of Kansas State Agricultural College . The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>Over time, this building has housed a diverse set of facilities, including a canteen, a barbershop, and a chapel. An electronic carillon was installed in 1965 to sound the hours.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was constructed in three phases starting with the north wing, followed by the central section, and finished with the south wing. The construction was first financed by the state in 1877 with construction starting in 1878. The final wing was finished in 1884. The building&#39;s purpose has changed much over the years and it has been altered many times in its history.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The construction of Anderson Hall began in 1877 with an appropriation of $12,500 by the Kansas legislature for its north wing. Excavation began in March 1878 and the building was initially occupied a year later in 1879. The building initially housed classrooms for English, drawing, mathematics, and practical agriculture. It also housed the president&#39;s office, and the library from 1879 until 1894.</p><br>
<p>In 1880, the Kansas legislature made a new appropriation of $30,000 to build the central structure including the tower. The north wing of the building was also retrofitted at this time to make this building the first on campus to be equipped with steam heating. A time capsule was also embedded in the new foundation, which included some campus records, commencement speech transcripts, some copies of the school newspaper (The Industrialist), and other documents. A story in the newspaper in the June 4, 1981, issue stated, "incased in solid masonry, it will remain until resurrected by some curious antiquary, a thousand years hence."</p><br>
<p>The new central section contained a new office for the president, a fire-proof vault (under which the time capsule was buried), the main hall, and in the back (west) of the central section was the chapel. The main hall featured a large dome-like stained glass window at the top. The chapel had a sloped floor with 16-tiers of wooden folding chairs.</p><br>
<p>The south wing began construction in 1883 with an appropriation of $20,000 by the state legislature. It was completed in 1884. Two east facing porches were also added to the front of the building between the central section and the ends of the north and south wings at this time. The new wing featured a model kitchen and dairy, a sewing room, the Lady Superintendent&#39;s office, study rooms, and classrooms.</p><br>
<h3>Remodeling</h3><br>
<p>Here is a timeline illustrating modifications that have been made to Anderson Hall since its initial construction.</p><br>
<p>1887 - The chapel was extended and the attic of the building was finished.</p><br>
<p>1892 - The archway was opened from the secretary&#39;s office to the main hall.</p><br>
<p>1893 - A hall well on the second floor was closed.</p><br>
<p>1896 - A cement floor was added to the basement hall.</p><br>
<p>1897 - The president&#39;s office was moved to the south side of the main hall.</p><br>
<p>1903 - The porches were rebuilt and painted.</p><br>
<p>1904 - The literary society room was converted into four offices.</p><br>
<p>1908 - The chapel was split to make room for more architecture classrooms.</p><br>
<p>1919 - A canteen and barbershop were installed into the basement.</p><br>
<p>1920 - The chapel was turned into a recreation center.</p><br>
<p>1924 - The canteen and barbershop closed.</p><br>
<p>1933 - The east wall of the building was repaired from moisture damage caused by vines.</p><br>
<p>1939 - An office for the dean of women was added.</p><br>
<p>1945 - The wooden porches were converted into office space.</p><br>
<p>1961 - The east wall of the south wing was reinforced with steel pipes for a time and then removed when the wall was rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>1965 - An electric 98-bell carillon was installed in the tower as a gift from Mr. and Mrs. Ralf Hockins of Arrington, Kansas.</p><br>
<p>1989 - The central tower of Anderson was repaired.</p><br>
<p>1993 - On August 20, the tower was struck by lightning causing $1.25 million in damage to the building.</p><br>
<h2>Current uses</h2><br>
<p>This building now contains many of the administrative offices for Kansas State University. This includes the office of the president, some of the vice presidents and deans, the provost&#39;s office, and several offices related to legal, public relations, human resources, and student administration.</p><br>
<p>Vikingsholm is a 38-room mansion on the shore of Emerald Bay at Lake Tahoe, in El Dorado County, California, USA, and on the National Register of Historic Places. It has been called "one of the finest examples of Scandinavian architecture in North America."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Vikingsholm was built by Lora Josephine Knight as a summer home. The foundation was laid in 1928, and the building was constructed in 1929 by around 200 workers. Before starting construction, Knight and her architect traveled to Scandinavia to gather ideas for the house. Some parts of the structure contain no nails or spikes, as a result of old-fashioned construction methods. Most of the building was made from local materials.</p><br>
<p>While Mrs. Knight is known for building Vikingsholm, she and her businessman husband Harry were also primary backers of Charles Lindbergh&#39;s non-stop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927.</p><br>
<p>Harvey West, a wealthy lumberman who owned the land after Knight, sold it to California for half of the appraised value in 1953.</p><br>
<p>Vikingsholm has been called "one of the finest examples of Scandinavian architecture in North America."</p><br>
<h2>Emerald Bay State Park</h2><br>
<p>Vikingsholm, along with Knight&#39;s "Tea House" on Fannette Island, is a part of Emerald Bay State Park, which has been declared a National Natural Landmark. Tours are given of the American Craftsman Vikingsholm museum home for a nominal fee.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>There are six buildings on the property that are considered to be part of Vikingsholm: the main house, the workshop, the duplex, the teahouse, the transformer building, and the gardener&#39;s cottage. In addition to the buildings, some of the rock retaining walls, the water tanks, and the entrance from the highway were also constructed during the time Mrs. Knight owned the property.</p><br>
<h3>The Main Building</h3><br>
<p>The main house is made up of four rectangular wings that enclose a courtyard. Pine and fir siding with ornamental handcarvings cover the wall surfaces, or they are exposed stone. The east wing is the main wing of the house, with a square three-story tower at the north end and a two-story tower at the south end. Scandinavian serpent designs are carved into the wood above the door and windows facing the lake and above the door facing the courtyard. The walls of the east wing were built to resemble those of Olavinlinna, a stone castle built in 1015 AD, and use light color mortar with dark colored stones.</p><br>
<h4>North and South Wings</h4><br>
<p>The north and south wings have gabled sod roofs that feature an original sprinkler system. These roofs historically featured wildflowers and grasses, but since the removal of the fir trees in the courtyard, only grow grass. The north wing was used for storage and servants quarters, and the south wing was used as a workshop and garage.</p><br>
<h4>The West Wing</h4><br>
<p>The west wing had an apartment for the caretaker along with laundry facilities. The original roof was made of split logs held in place without nails or spikes, but a replacement shingled roof was built after a tree fell on this section of the building. The roof features carved beams ending in dragon heads. The west entry to the apartment has a covered porch with ornamental carvings, which were based on carvings at a church entrance that the architect observed while visiting Scandinavia.</p><br>
<h3>The Duplex</h3><br>
<p>The duplex is a two-story, square house. The walls have decorative false logs, and the porches are mortared stone. The building was originally used as extra guest housing, and now houses the museum and visitor&#39;s center managed by the park system.</p><br>
<h3>The Teahouse</h3><br>
<p>The teahouse is located on Fannette Island and is only accessible by boat. Natural looking stairs carved out of the rock lead up to this square, stone house. Originally, it had a flat roof, a door, and windows, but these were destroyed by vandalism and now only the main stone structure remains. There is a stone fireplace in the southwest corner of the building.</p><br>
<p>East Potomac Park is a park located on a man-made island in the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., United States. The island is between the Washington Channel and the Potomac River, and on it the park lies southeast of the Jefferson Memorial and the 14th Street Bridge. Amenities in East Potomac Park include the East Potomac Park Golf Course, a miniature golf course, a public swimming pool , tennis courts, and several athletic fields . The park is a popular spot for fishing, and cyclists, walkers, inline skaters, and runners heavily use the park&#39;s roads and paths. A portion of Ohio Drive SW runs along the perimeter of the park.</p><br>
<p>East Potomac Park is accessible primarily by road via Ohio Drive SW. The DC Circulator National Mall Route, which began service in June 2015, provides the best public transportation option for reaching East Potomac Park. The closest Circulator stop is at East Basin Drive SW south of the Jefferson Memorial, which is within easy walking distance of Ohio Drive SW and the north end of the park. Metrobus does not serve the park, and there is no Washington Metro stop close to the park. The nearest Metro stop is the Smithsonian station at Independence Avenue SW and 12th Street SW, about six blocks away. (Walking from Metro requires accessing the park via Raoul Wallenberg Place SW, Maine Avenue SW, and Ohio Drive SW.)</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Although the shoreline of the Potomac River in the District of Columbia was likely to have been littered with shoals, sandbars, and marsh flats, no documentation of these was undertaken until 1834. At that time, the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers identified extensive tidal flats below Long Bridge (the predecessor structure to the 14th Street Bridge). These varied in size, but the largest was 100 acre in size at low tide. By 1881, these extended from about the Old Naval Observatory down to Buzzard Point. Near the modern intersection of 17th Street NW and Constitution Avenue NW, the citys sewer system discharged into an extensive tidal flat, known as Kidwells Meadows. Exposed to the air about half the time, the sewage began decomposing, creating a powerful, rank smell.</p><br>
<p>The southern part of the Pennsylvania Avenue district was flooded many times in the last three decades of the 19th century. Major floods occurred in October 1870 (during which Chain Bridge was destroyed), February 1881, November 1887, and June 1889 (the same storm which caused the Johnstown Flood). Floodwaters were high enough that rowboats were used on the avenue, and horse-drawn streetcars saw water reach the bottom of the trams. After a disastrous flood in 1881, the United States Army Corps of Engineers dredged a deep channel in the Potomac and used the material to fill in the Potomac (creating the current banks of the river) and raise much of the land near the White House and along Pennsylvania Avenue NW by nearly 6 ft. Much of the dredged material was used to build up the existing tidal flats in the Potomac River as well as sandbars which had been created by silting around Long Bridge. Reclamation occurred in three phases: Section 1 (became 135 acre West Potomac Park), section 2 (became the 277 acre the area around the Tidal Basin), and section 3 (became the 327 acre East Potomac Park). Congress formally designated these areas "Potomac Park" on March 3, 1897.</p><br>
<p>To ensure that the island was not eroded by the river, poplars and willows were planted along edge of the island to stabilize the shoreline. Over the next two decades, most of East Potomac Park lay untouched, and dense thickets of trees and brush grew up on the island. Dredging of the Potomac River continued even after East Potomac Park was considered finished, and additional dredged material was placed on the island in late 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904, and 1907.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in late 1907, a bridge was built across the Tidal Basin Outlet Channel, carrying the Washington, Alexandria, and Mount Vernon Electric Railway (a streetcar line) over the Washington Channel and the Long Bridge into Virginia. This was completed in June 1908. More dredge material was deposited on the island in 1909, 1911, and 1912.</p><br>
<p>In 1900, the United States Senate established the Senate Park Commission to reconcile competing visions for the development of Washington, D.C., and the parks within it. Better known as the McMillan Commission, because of its influential chairman, Senator James McMillan, the commission released a document known as McMillan Plan in 1902. The McMillan Plan called for turning the undeveloped land into a formal park with extensive recreation facilities.</p><br>
<h2>History of the park</h2><br>
<p>Infilling of the East Potomac Park island continued long after the island was considered complete. In 1906, a large elliptical depression covering about 14 acre existed in the center of the island. Due to the distance to shore, the Corps of Engineers felt it was not feasible to fill in the area. But a contractor, eager to be rid of dredged material, filled it in for free in 1908. A portion of the park then served in 1910 as a nursery for providing trees, shrubs, and flowers for Congress, the White House, and other governmental agencies.</p><br>
<p>Congress gave permission for the Corps to open East Potomac Park to the public in August 1912. In September 1912, the Corps began construction of a 30 ft road on the Potomac River shoreline of East Potomac Park. Work continued on the Potomac River shoreline in 1914, and continued up the Washington Channel side. The road on the Channel side was completed in spring 1915, leaving a temporary road around the southern tip of the island. This portion of the road was finished in late June 1915.</p><br>
<p>Congress transferred jurisdiction of East Potomac Park to the District of Columbia from the federal government in legislation enacted on August 1, 1914. At the time, public works in the District of Columbia were overseen by the Army Corps of Engineers, so this legislation effectively placed the park under the Corps&#39; jurisdiction.</p><br>
<p>Spring 1915 saw the Corps extensively landscape East Potomac Park for the first time, planting 46,650 shrubs and flowering plants and 203 Japanese cherry trees (or sakura) along the roadway. Another 133 Japanese cherry trees were planted in spring 1916.</p><br>
<p>One of the first structures added to East Potomac Park was the National Park Service (NPS) lodge. The Corps of Engineers had originally proposed constructing a small lodge in East Potomac Park in 1908 to serve as a tool shed and public toilet and to serve as a shelter for police patrolling the park. But Congress did not approve this plan. Instead, a lodge originally built in Franklin Square in downtown Washington, D.C., about 1867 was moved to the north end of East Potomac Park, near the Washington Channel shoreline, between 1913 and June 1915. The National Park Service used the structure for various purposes until 1965, when Congress established the National Mall and Memorial Parks (known as NAMA, for National Mall) administrative unit of the National Park Service&#39;s National Capital Parks. NAMA has used the lodge for its headquarters ever since.</p><br>
<p>Bridle paths for horseback riding were also constructed in the park in 1913, and significantly expanded in summer 1915 and spring 1916. The first three of the park&#39;s many baseball diamonds were established in early 1915, and extensive cinder-lined walking paths constructed in summer 1915 and spring 1916. The Corps proceeded to clear grade, plow, and seed 88 acre of land in the center of the park for use as athletic fields in the summer of 1916 and again in the spring of 1917. But this land was turned over to the Boy Scouts of America for use as a victory garden.</p><br>
<h3>Golf course and fieldhouses</h3><br>
<p>Much of the park remained undeveloped until 1913, when a "fieldhouse" with lockers and showers was proposed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers for construction toward the center of the park. No funding for the fieldhouse was provided, but the following year the Corps of Engineers, acting on a request from local sportsmen, won approval for construction of a golf course on the lower two-thirds of the park. Work on the course was delayed for a variety of reasons, but construction finally began in January 1917, when golf course architect Walter Travis visited the city to see the site and begin designing the course. Although funding for construction was approved in May 1918, work was delayed during World War I as temporary soldiers&#39; barracks were built in and victory gardens were extensively planted throughout East Potomac Park. The first nine holes opened on July 7, 1920. A three-hole practice course opened in June 1922, and was expanded to a full nine holes some time in 1923. The final nine holes opened in late September 1924.</p><br>
<p>Work on the fieldhouse occurred alongside the golf course. Construction by the A.C. Moses Construction Co. began in June 1917. By this time, the single fieldhouse had become two fieldhouses, each slightly L-shaped with the long wing of the building on a northeast-southwest axis. The two structures were connected by a breezeway on the south side. World War I delayed their completion, and funding for the structures was scarce. Only one fieldhouse was ready by June 1919, and little additional work had been completed by August 1921. But with the golf course rapidly expanding, the single fieldhouse was quickly overwhelmed. The first fieldhouse was finished and the second one begun and completed by December 1921.</p><br>
<p>A teahouse, a campground for tourists, and horse stables were built in the park in the 1920s. A four-mile-long pedestrian promenade was constructed around the park perimeter in 1935.</p><br>
<h3>Pool</h3><br>
<p>A pool was first proposed for East Potomac Park in 1927, to be located between the two fieldhouses (which would now serve as bath houses). This effort was a private one, but approved by the city. But no work on the project was made. It wasn&#39;t until April 1935 that the federal government approved and provided funding for a pool, and even then construction did not begin until 1936. By this time, a bath house was provided for pool users, so that the fieldhouses could remain dedicated to golf course users. A major flood damaged much of the pool construction work in July 1936, and the pool finally opened on June 4, 1937.</p><br>
<p>At some point in the 1950s, 1960s, or 1970s, the eastern fieldhouse was closed to the public and turned over to the U.S Park Police for use as their District 1 Station.</p><br>
<p>The pool and bath house remained largely as constructed until 1976, when the original concrete pool was removed and replaced with a pool consisting of an aluminum shell encased in fiberglass. The bath house was also replaced at this time. The original 1936 pool deck and underground pool structures remained in place, however.</p><br>
<p>The pool was closed at the end of 2016 for an upgrade. In 2020 the project was halted and the pool was "deconstructed" due to an erroneous report that mis-stated how far below the surface the groundwater is.</p><br>
<h3>Mission 66 buildings</h3><br>
<p>In 1956, the National Park Service (NPS), which owned and supervised operation of East Potomac Park, adopted a strategic plan known as Mission 66. This ten-year strategic plan was designed to bring all NPS facilities nationwide up-to-date, and construct new facilities where needed. Mission 66 proposed building three new structures in East Potomac Park. The first was the headquarters of the NPS&#39; National Capital Region (NCR), constructed in the northern part of the park near the south shoreline and completed in 1963. The second was the headquarters of the United States Park Police (USPP), built adjacent to the NCR Headquarters and completed in 1964. Both buildings were designed by William M. Haussmann, an architect who was chief of the National Capital Office of Design and Construction in the National Park Service. In 1969, a one-story addition containing a cafeteria and training center was added to the north end of the NCR headquarters structure.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the 1913 lodge and the two fieldhouses were nominated for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. The latter buildings were hailed as being excellent examples of the "Mission 66" style of architecture.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, the National Park Service proposed a major restructuring of all federal government operations in the Mission 66 buildings. The consolidation and renovations were needed because the NAMA headquarters and the USPP District 1 headquarters were both in a medium-risk floodplain expected to have a severe flood once in every 100 years. A portion of the USSP District 1 access road and grounds were in a floodplain expected to have a severe flood every 10 to 25 years. Additionally, planners noted that the USPP District 1 headquarters was not configured to meet heightened security needs in a post-9/11 world. NPS and USPP officials said they anticipated upgrading the HVAC and mechanical systems of the NCR headquarters, making the structure Americans with Disabilities Act compliant, and renovating the interior to create an open workspace from closed offices, which would allow far more efficient use of space and the demolition of some temporary office trailers currently on the northern corner of the complex&#39;s parking lot. A new 13,000 ft&sup2; USPP District 1 station would be constructed on the site of the temporary trailers, allowing the fieldhouse to be returned to public use. (There was no announcement made about the use of the 1913 lodge.) The $28 million project was being overseen by the architectural firm of Beyer Blinder Belle.</p><br>
<h3>Other history</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in 1971, the United States lightship Chesapeake was anchored off East Potomac Park in the Washington Channel. The ship drew 25,000 visitors annually until she was moved to Baltimore Harbor and loaned to the Baltimore Maritime Museum in 1982.</p><br>
<p>The Tidal Basin Outlet Channel Bridge, which now carried the 14th Street Bridge over the Washington Channel and East Potomac Park, was reconstructed in 1980.</p><br>
<p>Congress designated Hains Point, the southern tip of the park, as the site for a National Peace Garden in 1988. But authorization for the memorial expired without any construction occurring.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the United States Navy enclosed 4 acre of the park between the NCR/USPP office building&#39;s parking lot and the railroad tracks, and constructed a large steel shed there. The construction bypassed normal review procedures for the use of public land and design of building in the National Capital Area, although members (but not staff) of the United States Commission of Fine Arts and the National Capital Planning Commission were later briefed about the project and sworn to secrecy. The ongoing activity, The Washington Post reported, is presumed to be related to national security. The Navy declined to address the project other than to say it was "utility assessment and upgrade", and that when the work was finished only a small utility shed will remain (with landscaping restored to its previous condition).</p><br>
<p>By 2015, East Potomac Park had fallen into disrepair. The 5 mi long riprap seawall was disintegrating, sidewalks throughout the park were often cracked and buckled, and the miniature golf course was worn and dirty. A portion of the seawall and sidewalk along the southern tip of the park was in such bad shape that the National Park Service closed the area to all pedestrian traffic in 2014.</p><br>
<p>Old Town is a neighborhood and historic district in Near North Side and Lincoln Park, Chicago, Illinois, home to many of Chicagos older, Victorian-era buildings, including St. Michaels Church, one of seven buildings to survive the Great Chicago Fire.</p><br>
<h2>Location and name</h2><br>
<p>In the 19th century, German and Luxembourgish immigrants moved to the meadows north of North Avenue and began farming what had previously been swampland, planting celery, potatoes, and cabbages. This led the area to be nicknamed "The Cabbage Patch", a name which stuck until the early 1900s.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the triangle formed by North Avenue, Clark Street, and Ogden Avenue (since removed) were designated a neighborhood defense unit by Chicago&#39;s Civil Defense Agency. In the years immediately after the war, the population of "North Town" (as it had come to be known by the 1940s) sponsored annual art fairs called the "Old Town Holiday". The art fairs were popular attractions for the neighborhood, and the name "Old Town" was used in the title of the Old Town Triangle Association when it was formed in 1948, by residents who wanted to improve the condition of buildings that were suffering from physical deterioration.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, much of Old Town was an enclave for many of the first Puerto Ricans to come to Chicago. They referred to the area as part of "La Clark".</p><br>
<p>No legal entity is known as "Old Town", but claims have been made as to the nature of its legally-unspecified borders:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>The land known as Old Town originally served as a home and trade center to many Native American nations, including the Potawatomi, Miami, and Illinois.</p><br>
<p>Following the 1833 Treaty of Chicago, most of the indigenous people were forcibly removed, and the land was then settled in the 1850s by German-Catholic immigrants. Clark Street is a leftover of the culture, being an old road which followed a slight ridge along Lake Michigan.</p><br>
<p>Old Town is the site of many of Chicagos older, Victorian-era buildings, as well as St. Michaels Church, originally a Bavarian-built church and one of seven to survive within the boundaries of the Great Chicago Fire.</p><br>
<p>Many of the streets and alleys, particularly in the Old Town Triangle section, predate the Great Chicago Fire and do not all adhere to a typical Chicago grid pattern.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Old Town has one Brown-Purple Line El station, at 1536–40 North Sedgwick Street. It is one of the oldest standing stations on the El, built in 1900.</p><br>
<p>In 1924, the first gay rights organization in American history, the Society for Human Rights, was established by Henry Gerber at his home, the Henry Gerber House, on North Crilly Court. The Henry Gerber House was designated a Chicago Landmark on June 6, 2001. In June 2015, it was named a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, sculptors Sol Kogen and Edgar Miller purchased and subsequently rehabilitated a house on Burton Place, near Wells Street, into the Carl Street Studios. During the 1930s, an art colony emerged in the neighborhood as artists moved from the Towertown neighborhood near Washington Square Park.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, upon the first election of Mayor Daley, 43rd ward alderman Paddy Bauler, who kept a saloon in Old Town at North and Sedgwick Avenues called De Luxe Gardens, famously declared "Chicago ain&#39;t ready for reform yet" many times over in his bar while dancing a jig.</p><br>
<p>During the 1960s, the neighborhood was the center of the yippie and hippie counter culture in the midwestern United States. This was mostly because by the 1950s and 1960s, many of the original families that had settled in the neighborhood had moved to the suburbs during white flight, leaving older Victorian buildings with storefronts available to rent inexpensively. A community of Puerto Ricans formed along Wieland, North Park, Sedgwick and west on North Avenue. The Young Lords, then a street gang with Jose Cha-Cha Jimenez had a branch of their group at Wieland and North Avenues. This dense storefront-laden area (Wells and North Avenues) became also the nexus of hippie culture, (as well as the newly emerging out-homosexual culture) and gave rise to the boutiques (Crate & Barrel, for example) in the neighborhood today. Seed was a literary staple of the neighborhood at the time.</p><br>
<p>The violent events that took place during the 1968 Democratic National Convention transpired primarily in Grant Park, Old Town, and Lincoln Park, adjacent to Old Town.</p><br>
<p>The film The Weather Underground has a scene on La Salle Avenue in Old Town, which describes the Zeitgeist of the era.</p><br>
<p>Old Town was home to many gays and lesbians from the 1960s through the 1980s. There were numerous gay bars lining Wells Street (all of them closed as of 2013). This was the first "gay ghetto" in Chicago, predating the current Lake View neighborhood (which is the current epicenter of gay life); As the area gentrified, gay residents moved further north to Lincoln Park and then Lake View neighborhoods.</p><br>
<p>During the 1960s and 1970s, Old Town became the center of Chicago folk music, which was experiencing a revival at the time. In 1957, the Old Town School of Folk Music opened at 333 West North Avenue and stayed at that address until 1968, when the school moved to 909 West Armitage Avenue. It has retained the name, although it is no longer located within Old Town. Singer-songwriters such as Bob Gibson, Steve Goodman, Bonnie Koloc, and John Prine played at several clubs on Wells Street, such as The Earl of Old Town. The Old Town School of Folk Music was closely associated with these artists and clubs. One large and successful folk club was Mother Blues, which featured nationally known artists and groups such as Jose Feliciano, Odetta, Oscar Brown Jr., Josh White, and Chad Mitchell. It also presented comedian George Carlin, Sergio Mendez, Brazil &#39;66, and The Jefferson Airplane.</p><br>
<p>A few of the institutions from the 1960s era still exist today, such as Crate & Barrel, The Second City, the Old Town Ale House, Bijou Video, the Old Town School of Folk Music (which moved after the 1968 riots), the Fudge Pot, the Up Down Tobacco Shop (which used to be located just south of its current location), and the Old Town Aquarium (which moved in 2019 to Irving Park, while keeping its name).</p><br>
<p>After the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the subsequent riots, the neighborhood experienced a tense racial division during the 1970s and 1980s which left a segregation between Old Town north of North Ave. and Old Town south of North Ave. In the early 2000s, this trend had begun to shift towards a gentrification of the area south of North Ave. on Sedgwick, Blackhawk, Hudson and Mohawk streets, near the Marshall Field Garden Apartments. The area to the west of these streets, near the North and Clybourn Red Line stop had been dubbed "SoNo" by real estate developers. SoNo&#39;s boundaries are North Avenue, Halsted Street, Division Street and the North Branch of the Chicago River. Currently, Old Town south of North Avenue is a mixture of wealth and poverty, though the area is steadily gentrifying. The demolition of the Cabrini–Green high rise housing projects to the south has led to significant demographic changes in the neighborhood. The original Francis X. Cabrini Row Houses still are standing. The Parkside of Old Town development was built replacing the Cabrini-Green high rises just south of Old Town.</p><br>
<p>By 1976, Wells Street in Old Town had many sex-industry businesses operating, so many that Wells street was specifically named in Time Magazine&#39;s 1976 article "The Porno Plague". It was thought that some of the businesses had mob connections.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Current cultural amenities in the neighborhood include Old Town Triangle Art Center, and the annual Old Town Art Fair. Noble Horse Theater stood from 1871 until a 2015 arson forced a sale in 2017, and the land was bought and built into condominiums.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Chicago Public Schools (CPS) operates public schools for the area.</p><br>
<p>Manierre K–8 School is in "Sedville", a gang territory area in Old Town., it was considered a low-performing school. In the 2010s, CPS considered merging Jenner K–8 in Cabrini-Green and Manierre together, but concerns involving students crossing gang territorial lines meant that both schools remained open.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Dennis Farina</p><br>
<p>Polo G</p><br>
<p>Moundville Archaeological Site, also known as the Moundville Archaeological Park, is a Mississippian culture archaeological site on the Black Warrior River in Hale County, near the modern city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Extensive archaeological investigation has shown that the site was the political and ceremonial center of a regionally organized Mississippian culture chiefdom polity between the 11th and 16th centuries. The archaeological park portion of the site is administered by the University of Alabama Museums and encompasses 185 acre, consisting of 29 platform mounds around a rectangular plaza.</p><br>
<p>The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Moundville is the second-largest site in the United States of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in Illinois. The culture was expressed in villages and chiefdoms throughout the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi as the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. The park contains a museum and an archaeological laboratory.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Moundville was mentioned by E. G. Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis in their work, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (c1848), a survey conducted for the Smithsonian Institution. Later in the century, Nathaniel Thomas Lupton created a fairly accurate map of the site.</p><br>
<p>Little excavation work was conducted at Moundville by the Bureau of Ethnology&#39;s Division of Mound Exploration, partly because the landowner imposed a fee. The first significant archaeological investigations were not conducted until the early 20th century, by Clarence Bloomfield Moore, a lawyer from Philadelphia. He dug extensively at Moundville in 1906, and his detailed records of his work and finds have been of use to modern archaeologists. But looters dug into the mounds over the next two decades and took many artifacts, in addition to destroying stratigraphy of some structures.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1920s concerned citizens, including Walter B. Jones (geologist) (after whom the site&#39;s museum is named) had begun a concerted effort to save the site. With the help of the Alabama Museum of Natural History, they purchased the land containing the mounds. By 1933 the site had officially become known as Mound State Park, but the park was not developed for visitors until 1938. During this period of the Great Depression, workers of the Civilian Conservation Corps were brought in to stabilize the mounds against erosion. They also constructed roads and buildings to allow public uses at the site. The name of the park was changed to Mound State Monument and was opened to the public in 1939.</p><br>
<p>During a 1980 break-in at the Erskine Ramsay Archaeological Repository at Moundville, 264 pottery vessels, one-fifth of the vessel collection curated by the Alabama Museum of Natural History, were stolen. The highest-quality specimens were taken. Despite an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, none of the artifacts was seen again until 2018 when three ceremonial bowls were anonymously returned.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the park&#39;s name was officially changed to Moundville Archaeological Park. In November 2021, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Review Committee found the site to be culturally linked to the seven Muskogean-speaking tribes who have petitioned for the return of 5,982 human remains and funerary objects.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The site was occupied by Native Americans of the Mississippian culture from around 1000 AD to 1450 AD. Around 1150 AD the settlement&#39;s leaders began their rise from a local to a regional center, known as a chiefdom. At its height, the community took the form of a roughly 300 acre residential and political area, protected on three sides by a bastioned wooden palisade wall. The remaining side was protected by the river bluff.</p><br>
<p>The largest platform mounds were built on the northern edge of the plaza; they become increasingly smaller going either clockwise or counter clockwise around the plaza to the south. Scholars theorize that the highest-ranking clans occupied the large northern mounds, with the smaller mounds&#39; supporting buildings used for residences, mortuary, and other purposes. A total of 29 mounds remain on the site.</p><br>
<p>Of the two largest mounds in the group, Mound A occupies a central position in the great plaza, and Mound B lies just to the north. It is a steep, 58 ft-tall pyramidal mound with two access ramps. Archaeologists have also found evidence at the site of borrow pits, other public buildings, and a dozen small houses constructed of pole and thatch.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists have interpreted this community plan as a sociogram, an architectural depiction of a social order based on ranked clans. According to this model, the Moundville community was segmented into a variety of different clan precincts, the ranked positions of which were represented in the size and arrangement of paired earthen mounds around the central plaza. By 1300, the site was being used more as a religious and political center than as a residential town. This signaled the beginning of a decline, and by 1500 most of the area was abandoned.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The surrounding area appears to have been densely populated, but the people built relatively few mounds before AD 1200, after which the public architecture of the plaza and mounds was constructed. At its height, the population is estimated to have been around 1,000 to 3,000 people within the walls, with 10,000 additional people in the surrounding river valley.</p><br>
<p>Based on findings during excavations, the residents of the site were skilled in agriculture, especially the cultivation of maize. Production of maize surpluses gave the people time produce to trade for other goods, supported population density, and allowed craft specialization. Extensive amounts of imported luxury goods, such as copper, mica, galena, and marine shell, have been excavated from the site. The site is renowned by scholars for the artistic excellence of its artifacts of pottery, stonework, and embossed copper left by the former residents.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations and interpretation</h2><br>
<p>The first major excavations were done in 1905-06 by Clarence Bloomfield Moore, an independent archeologist, before archaeology had become a professional field of scholarship. His work first brought the site national attention and contributed to archaeologists developing the concept of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. One of his many discoveries was a finely carved diorite bowl depicting a crested wood duck. He later donated this work to the Smithsonian Institution, together with more than 500 other pieces.</p><br>
<p>Although the state had shown little interest in the site, after Moore removed this and many of the site&#39;s finest artifacts, the Alabama Legislature passed a law prohibiting people from taking any other artifacts from the state. Archaeological techniques in general were relatively crude when compared to modern standards, but some professionals even during his time criticized Moore for his excavation techniques.</p><br>
<p>The first large-scale scientific excavations of the site began in 1929 by Walter B. Jones, director of the Alabama Museum of Natural History, and the archaeologist David L. DeJarnette. During the 1930s, Jones used some workers from the Civilian Conservation Corps for excavation as well as stabilization of the mounds. This was a work program developed by the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration during the Great Depression.</p><br>
<p>In the early 21st century, work is led by Dr. Jim Knight, Curator of Southeastern Archaeology at the University of Alabama. He is conducting field research at Moundville with an emphasis on ethnohistorical reconstruction. A ceremonial "earth lodge" was discovered in 2007, and about 15 percent of the site has been excavated.</p><br>
<p>The Jones Archaeological Museum was constructed on the park property in 1939 for display of artifacts collected at the site and interpretation of the ancient peoples and culture. It served as a valuable teaching center for many decades. In the 21st century, the museum was remodeled and equipped with the latest technological improvements in 2010. The University of Alabama maintains an archaeological lab at the park and sponsors summer field seasons and public events.</p><br>
<h3>Ceramics</h3><br>
<p>Two major varieties of pottery are associated with the Moundville site. The Hemphill style pottery is a locally produced ware with a distinctive engraving tradition, and is mostly associated with burial practices. The other variety consists of painted vessels, many of which were not produced locally, which is evidence of trade taking place among other societies outside of the one that lived in Moundville. Unlike the engraved pottery, the negative-painted pottery seems to have been used only by the elites at the Moundville site, as it has not been found outside the site.</p><br>
<h3>Moundville Archaeological Site Human Remains Controversy</h3><br>
<p>In accordance with the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), institutions such as universities and museums are required to document any discovered human remains and return them to the appropriate indigenous tribes. However, there is debate surrounding if modern tribes have a substantial claim to the human remains found at American excavation sites.</p><br>
<p>In the case of Moundville, currently 7 tribes are laying claim to the 5,892 human remains that have been excavated there. Those tribes being:</p><br>
<p>• The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma</p><br>
<p>• The Chickasaw Nation</p><br>
<p>• The Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana</p><br>
<p>• The Muscogee (also known as the Creek) Nation</p><br>
<p>• The Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town</p><br>
<p>• The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma</p><br>
<p>• The Seminole Tribe of Florida</p><br>
<p>All of the tribes claim that they are culturally and/or linguistically descended from the culture that lived in Moundville, since that society predates their own. Therefore, the tribes want to have autonomy of the artifacts and human remains that were excavated in Moundville returned to them, as well where they will then decide what to do with them. Often times, the remains are ceremonially reburied according to the respective tribe&#39;s traditions, as many believe that the exhumation of the graves to be unethical and disrespectful. Many institutions fear that returning the human remains to the tribes entails no longer being able to study, but this is not necessarily the case. Rather, the tribes would be in control of what artifacts are studied, as well as be included in those same studies. However, many institutions hold onto the artifacts, claiming that the aforementioned tribes are not culturally and linguistically similar enough to the culture that inhabited Moundville.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Moundville Archaeological Site is located on a bluff overlooking the Black Warrior River. The site and other affiliated settlements are located within a portion of the Black Warrior River Valley starting below the fall line, just south of present-day Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and extending 25 mi downriver. Below the fall line, the valley widens and the uplands consist of rolling hills dissected by intermittent streams. This region corresponds with the transition between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain and encompasses considerable physiographic and ecological diversity. Environmentally this portion of the Black Warrior Valley was an ecotone that had floral and faunal characteristics from temperate oak-hickory, maritime magnolia, and pine forests.</p><br>
<p>The downtown of Duluth, Minnesota, United States, is situated between Mesaba Avenue  and 4th Avenue East; and located on Michigan, Superior, First, Second, and Third streets.</p><br>
<p>The downtown area is home to a number of the citys cultural and social attractions, as well as government offices and business centers. Duluths main library is located in downtown, as is the citys foremost museum, the courthouse, city hall, several local restaurants and bars with live music venues, and many of the larger business offices. Stores and places to eat and drink tend to be locally or regionally owned and operated, with most chain and franchise establishments having located (or re-located) themselves in the "Miller Hill area" around the Miller Trunk Corridor. A large portion of the eastern section of downtown is oriented around Essentia Health–St. Marys Medical Center and Miller-Dwan Medical Center.</p><br>
<p>The downtown area is accessible from Interstate 35 as well as through transit service provided by Jefferson Lines and the Duluth Transit Authority. Most of the downtown is within walking distance of the touristy Canal Park district.</p><br>
<p>Five blocks along Superior Street and seven blocks along 1st Street West have been designated the Duluth Commercial Historic District, with 87 contributing properties built between 1872 and 1929. It was listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006 for its state-level significance in the themes of architecture and commerce. It was nominated for representing Duluth&#39;s commercial development and popular architectural styles at the turn of the 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The downtown area contains a number of historical buildings, many of them dating to the city&#39;s peak days in the late 19th century and early 20th. These include the Historic Old Central High School (now the administrative offices of Duluth Public Schools), the NorShor Theatre, and the Duluth Depot (now a museum), among many others. Newly constructed ones are less common than older edifices, although some large newer buildings such as the Tech Village are present. Downtown Duluth is the home of Fond-du-Luth Casino.</p><br>
<h2>Streets</h2><br>
<p>Streets in Duluths downtown area features dramatic upward slopes, a feature common to many of Duluths neighborhoods due to the 800 ft elevation difference between the shore and the hilltop.</p><br>
<p>As a part of a beautification project during Duluth&#39;s economic crisis of the 1980s, several blacktop streets were converted to brick. Along with this change came the introduction of "old-fashioned" ornamental streetlamps.</p><br>
<h2>Skywalk</h2><br>
<p>Due to the city&#39;s cold winter temperatures (at times falling well below -20 &deg;F), a network of skywalks was constructed to provide indoor connectivity between most major buildings. The skywalk system is augmented by an over-the-freeway enclosed walkway leading to the Duluth Entertainment Convention Center (DECC) in the Canal Park district.</p><br>
